The development of the emotional intelligence of leaders has become an exceptionally popular enterprise. However, the empirical research conducted by practitioners to date does not provide convincing evidence of the effectiveness of emotional intelligence development interventions. Robust and informative research on the effectiveness of coaching to develop the emotional intelligence of leaders is lacking.
The purpose of this study was to determine, describe and evaluate the impact of a theoretically substantiated coaching intervention on the emotional and social intelligence competencies of leaders in a financial services company.
The setting of the study is a financial services company in South Africa.
A mixed method approach using a quantitative and qualitative research design was considered appropriate. The quantitative research method consisted of a quasi-experimental design using a non-equivalent pre- and post test control group to measure the impact of the coaching intervention on a sample of 30 leaders. The Bar-On EQ-i scale was selected as a reliable and valid measure of emotional and social intelligence competencies. Wilcoxon’s statistic was calculated to determine the statistical significance of score differences between the experimental (
The statistical results indicated that coaching significantly impacted the emotional and social intelligence competencies of leaders in terms of their overall emotional quotient (EQ), intrapersonal competency, interpersonal skills, stress management, self-regard and empathy. The semi-structured interviews provided rich descriptive themes and evaluations that corroborated the quantitative findings.
This research provided convincing empirical evidence of the positive impact of a long-term, spaced and goal-focused coaching intervention on the emotional and social intelligence competencies of leaders in a financial services institution. The finding suggests that a theoretically well substantiated coaching intervention and a robust empirical study can be effective in demonstrating the impact of coaching on the emotional and social intelligence competencies of leaders. However, the implications of the limitations pointed out in this study could have influenced the findings, and future research aimed at improving relevant research models should take these into account.
Most organisations constantly search for ways to improve the capabilities of their leaders so as to keep pace with the ever-changing business environment. Leaders often lack effective leadership behaviour; therefore, they need effective interventions to develop their emotional and social intelligence competencies. The relevance of emotional intelligence (EI), also often referred to as ‘emotional and social intelligence’, to effective leadership behaviour in organisations is supported by numerous studies (Kotzé & Venter
Whereas the concept of emotionally intelligent behaviour is continually being developed and clarified as far as it is applicable at a personal level, there is a distinctive need to extend existing research to examine the development of emotionally intelligent behaviour in a work setting (Goleman
According to Boyatzis et al. (
This study aimed to rigorously and empirically investigate the effectiveness of a coaching intervention in developing the emotional and social intelligence competencies of leaders. It was posited that emotional and social intelligence competencies as presented in the Bar-On model could be developed by using an appropriately designed and theoretically substantiated coaching approach (Bar-On
More specifically, the researchers set out to determine, describe and evaluate the impact of a holistic, longer-term, spaced and goal-focused coaching intervention on the emotional and social intelligence competencies of leaders in a financial services company in South Africa.
It was hoped that the research would be of value to academic research, the profession of executive coaching, the practice of leadership development, and organisations in general. The study aimed to address the conceptual and assessment shortcomings of current studies on the process of EI development and to expand and enhance research and theory concerning the development of leaders’ emotional and social intelligence competencies that are required for effective leadership.
The remainder of this article is structured as follows: The ‘Literature review’ section provides a literature review seeking conceptual clarification of EI, emotional and social intelligence competencies, effective leadership and executive coaching. The efficacy of executive coaching and EI development programmes is reviewed, and a holistic executive coaching model is proposed and described. The ‘Research design’ section provides the research approach, the coaching intervention, the quantitative and qualitative research design. The ‘Discussion’ section provides the quantitative and qualitative findings, synthesis, an explanation of the contribution and limitations of the study, recommendations for future research and conclusive remarks.
EI theories can be traced back to Edward Thorndike (
a cross-section of interrelated emotional and social competencies, skills and facilitators that determine how effectively we understand and express ourselves, understand others and relate with them, and cope with daily demands. (p. 2)
Over the past two decades, there has been much controversy and confusion about the concept of EI and about the theoretical soundness and acceptability of its definitions, models and measures.
Numerous models and measures of EI exist. Daus and Ashkanasy (
Therefore, for the purpose of this research, the focus is on the theoretical model and measure most suitable for the context of use and relevant outcomes under investigation. In this study, the emphasis falls on the coaching of emotional and social intelligence competencies relevant to effective leadership, which calls for a concept of EI that is broader than the narrowly defined one in the ability model of Salovey and Mayer (
The Bar-On mixed model of EI was the model of choice for the purposes of this study as it is based on an ESC model (Daus & Ashkanasy
Bar-On’s emotional intelligence model.
Main component | Sub-component | Competency | ||
---|---|---|---|---|
Intrapersonal | • | Self-regard | • | To accurately perceive, understand and accept oneself. |
• | Emotional self-awareness | • | To be aware of and understand one’s own emotions. | |
• | Assertiveness | • | To effectively and constructively express one’s emotions and oneself. | |
• | Independence | • | To be self-reliant and free of emotional dependency on others. | |
• | Self-actualisation | • | To strive to achieve personal goals and actualise one’s potential. | |
Intrapersonal | • | Empathy | • | To be aware of and understand how others feel. |
• | Social responsibility | • | To identify with one’s social group and cooperate with others. | |
• | Interpersonal relationship | • | To establish mutually satisfying relationships and relate well with others. | |
Stress management | • | Stress tolerance | • | To effectively and constructively manage emotions. |
• | Impulse control | • | To effectively and constructively control emotions. | |
Adaptability | • | Reality testing | • | To objectively validate one’s feelings and thinking with external reality. |
• | Flexibility | • | To adapt and adjust one’s feelings and thinking to new situations. | |
• | Problem solving | • | To effectively solve problems of a personal and interpersonal nature. | |
General mood | • | Optimism | • | To be positive and look at the brighter side of life. |
• | Happiness | • | To feel content with oneself, others and life in general. |
According to Boyatzis (
The importance of developing leaders’ ESCs to ensure effective leadership and organisational success is clear from the existing research presented earlier in this article. However, numerous reviews have shown that leadership development programmes that follow a traditional teacher–learner or classroom-based training approach rarely show sustainable change in ESCs, and coaching has been suggested as an alternative approach (Boyatzis et al.
The purpose of coaching in organisations is largely to develop leaders, and this is referred to as executive coaching. The practice of executive coaching has become progressively more popular in the business domain over the past decades and is seen as a fundamental developmental intervention by means of which organisations build executives’ skills (Bono et al.
Grant (
a helping relationship formed between a client (the coachee) who has leadership, managerial, or supervisory authority and responsibility in an organisation, and a coach who uses a range of cognitive and behavioural techniques in order to help the client achieve a mutually defined set of goals with the aim of improving his or her leadership skills, professional performance, and well-being and the effectiveness of the organisation. (p. 2)
Although coaching may be defined specifically to suit an intended purpose and context, Passmore and Fillery-Travis (
a Socratic based future focused dialogue between a facilitator (coach) and a participant (coachee/client), where the facilitator uses open questions, active listening, summarises [
According to these authors, the Socratic dialogue refers to guided discovery, where the coach believes that the answer to a question is located within the coachee. Thus, the coach’s role is not that of an educator or trainer in the directive sense but that of a facilitator to self-discovery through shaping questions and focusing the attention on the next step of the process.
Unlike mentoring, training or consulting, coaching does not require in-depth domain-specific knowledge. However, effective coaches must have knowledge and experience of the psychology of stimulating self-awareness and personal responsibility that foster ongoing self-directed learning and personal growth. Bresser and Wilson (
Much current literature on coaching explores executive coaching as a relatively new and promising practice linked to growth and development, but empirical research assessing the effects of coaching lags far behind the practice of coaching (Bono et al.
Recent meta-analytical studies by Theeboom, Beersma and Van Vianen (
Despite the increasing popularity of coaching, evidence outlining the necessity of coaching to enhance leaders’ EI and the impact of coaching is inadequate (Carey, Philippon & Cummings
Mary et al. (
The remaining part of this article focuses on applying the principles, as advocated by Groves et al. (
Research evidence discussed thus far suggests that coaching is an effective leadership development technique. Executive coaching in particular is concerned with leader development within an organisational environment. Research done by Grant (
Grant’s (
According to Cherniss et al. (
The multidimensional nature of adult learning calls for a more holistic and contextualised approach to learning (Merriam
According to Passmore (
The arguments presented in the preceding paragraphs formed the foundation of the holistic coaching model (see
A holistic coaching model for use by the executive coach.
In designing the holistic coaching model, the following models, frameworks, techniques and principles were considered: Bar-On’s model of EI, the framework for emotional learning developed by Cherniss et al. (
Theoretical inclusivity (Grant
Wide acknowledgement in literature (Passmore
Client-compatible, theoretically grounded techniques (Grant
Potential to enhance performance in a business context (Grant et al.
The holistic coaching model is depicted in
The model depicted in
The main objective of this study was to empirically determine, describe and evaluate the impact of a theoretically substantiated holistic, longer term, spaced and goal-focused coaching intervention on the ESCs (as defined in the Bar-On model) of leaders in a financial services company in South Africa. In aspiring to achieve this objective, the researchers endeavoured to overcome design problems that inhibited research findings (problems found to be common to studies on EI development) and to provide a template to facilitate more informative studies on the impact of coaching on ESC.
A mixed method approach using qualitative and quantitative methods was used. Firstly, a quasi-experimental research design approach was followed using a non-equivalent pre- and post-control-group design to measure the impact of the coaching intervention. Thereafter, the impact of coaching was further investigated using qualitative methods and involving the experimental group and the relevant supervisors.
The coaching intervention was conducted by the primary author of this article. This researcher is a professional coach, registered industrial psychologist and human behaviour specialist with more than 10 years of coaching experience. The coaching model presented in
The design of the coaching intervention process.
The coaching preparation phase consisted of a thorough needs analysis to establish a connection with business strategy (Leskiw & Singh
The coaching intervention process consisted of a regulated series of nine short coaching development sessions spaced over a period of approximately 9–12 months. The spacing of the coaching sessions granted leaders the opportunity to process and integrate their learning, thereby enhancing their ESCs. The coaching was conducted through one-on-one interactions, driven by the results of the Bar-On EQ-i report of the leaders and based on mutual trust and respect.
According to Mary et al. (
In the transfer phase, leaders were required to use new behaviours regularly over a couple of months while receiving the built-in support of their supervisors. The programme was evaluated using a post-intervention Bar-On EQ-i assessment and conducting interviews with the supervisors.
Next, the quantitative and qualitative phases used in this study to determine the impact of coaching are discussed.
Leaders in a financial services company in the South African business context made up the target population of the study. These leaders were typically team leaders, middle managers or senior managers.
The experimental group consisted of 30 participants in a randomly chosen voluntary coaching programme for leaders. The 30 members of the control group were sourced from the company’s internal recruitment assessment database consisting of leaders who had completed the Bar-On EQ-i for selection purposes. The latter group of leaders was randomly selected using stratified sampling according to age, race and gender. Each member of the experimental and control groups had completed the Bar-On EQ-i self-report questionnaire as a pre- and post-intervention measure of ESCs.
The Bar-On EQ-i self-report questionnaire consists of 133 items and a five-point anchored Likert scale. The EQ-i composite score represents a total EQ measurement and consists of main components and sub-components. (Descriptions of the EQ-i components were presented in the ‘The Bar-On model of emotional intelligence’ section).
The raw scores of the self-report questionnaire were converted into standardised scores of which the average score was 100 and the standard deviation was 15. Average to above average scores suggest that a respondent’s emotional and social functioning can be considered effective whereas below average scores suggest an inability to be effective and the possible existence of emotional, social and/or behavioural problems.
The EQ-i measure is computer scored and contains a correction factor that automatically corrects scale scores based on responses to positive and negative impression items (Bar-On
Evidence of the reliability and validity of the Bar-On EQ-i’s scale in a South African context can be considered acceptable and comparable, with values ranging between 0.67 and 0.92 obtained elsewhere (Bar-On
The statistical analysis was done using the Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS) for Windows (Version 17.0). The difference in difference (DD) or double difference score analysis was considered to be the appropriate statistical method to use. DD is defined as the difference in mean outcome in respect of the experimental group before and after intervention minus the difference in mean outcome in respect of the control group before and after intervention. The DD equation would be:
The DD score analysis method removes the difference in the outcome between the experimental and the control groups at the baseline, allowing for an unbiased estimate of the intervention effect (May
A comparative analysis of the biographical variables of the experimental and control groups was done using Pearson’s chi-square test to provide evidence of the level of equivalence of the two groups. Furthermore, to explore group response biases (positive or negative impression forming), a comparative analysis of the pretest results in respect of the experimental and control groups was done.
Participants considered for the qualitative phase consisted of two groups: leaders who had been exposed to coaching (experimental group) and the supervisors of those leaders. The primary author of this article conducted in-depth semi-structured interviews with the six leaders of the experimental group and their supervisors (all in all 12 interviews).
Interview guide for the leaders and their supervisors.
Main | Probe for |
---|---|
What does emotional intelligence mean to you? | A solid theoretical framework and good understanding of emotional intelligence. |
What do you perceive was the impact of longer-term, spaced and goal-focused coaching on your/the leader’s emotional skills? | Specific examples and situations. |
What do you consider to be the positive outcomes of and benefits derived from the coaching journey? | For you and the leader? |
Were there any of your or the leader’s emotional intelligence skills that were not enhanced by longer-term, spaced and goal-focused coaching? | If so, why? |
*How did you experience the coaching journey? | The coaching process? |
What could be the factors that might have influenced the effectiveness of the coaching journey? | Examples of the factors contributing to the effectiveness of coaching. |
Is there anything else that you think may be important that we have not discussed? | - |
Note: Only the leaders and not their supervisors were asked this question.
The interviews were audio recorded and transcribed (Saunders, Lewis & Thornhill
The Ethics Committee of the Faculty of Economic and Management Sciences, University of Pretoria approved the study.
The Bar-On EQ-i overall score, composite scales and factors were used to determine the impact of the coaching intervention on leaders’ ESCs. The Pearson’s chi-square test results were non-significant (
Biographical variable frequencies for the control and experimental groups (
Frequencies | Race |
Gender |
Age |
||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Black | Mixed race | Indian | White | Female | Male | Average | |
Control group | 3 | 1 | 2 | 24 | 16 | 14 | 40 |
Experimental group | 1 | 1 | 6 | 22 | 16 | 14 | 39 |
The pretest and posttest scores for all components of the EQ-i in respect of the experimental and control groups are presented in
Differences between the pre- and post-coaching evaluations of the experimental and control groups pertaining to the components measured (
Components | Control group |
Experimental group |
Z | ||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Pretest |
Posttest |
Pretest |
Posttest |
||||||
Mean | Std. dev. | Mean | Std. dev. | Mean | Std. dev. | Mean | Std. dev. | ||
Self-regard | 101.57 | 11.85 | 96.87 | 12.20 | 104.17 | 12.02 | 105.47 | 9.77 | 3.21 |
Emotional self-awareness | 97.87 | 15.23 | 96.00 | 14.54 | 102.30 | 13.43 | 106.97 | 12.46 | 2.36 |
Assertiveness | 99.37 | 16.81 | 100.2 | 14.36 | 101.60 | 12.57 | 105.87 | 12.30 | 1.63 |
Independence | 105.97 | 11.92 | 103.93 | 13.18 | 103.83 | 12.15 | 106.30 | 11.21 | 1.39 |
Self-actualisation | 101.40 | 11.84 | 98.27 | 14.07 | 103.57 | 12.42 | 106.97 | 9.99 | 2.63 |
Empathy | 101.03 | 13.29 | 98.63 | 15.79 | 98.83 | 11.95 | 104.73 | 12.00 | 2.97 |
Social responsibility | 102.07 | 13.32 | 99.57 | 14.82 | 98.17 | 14.10 | 103.87 | 12.25 | 2.39 |
Interpersonal relationship | 96.33 | 12.97 | 95.97 | 13.30 | 101.33 | 12.36 | 106.23 | 10.87 | 2.82 |
Stress tolerance | 103.90 | 13.18 | 101.47 | 12.77 | 102.97 | 12.68 | 105.97 | 12.07 | 2.59 |
Impulse control | 103.80 | 12.96 | 103.17 | 10.85 | 95.37 | 21.94 | 102.13 | 16.01 | 1.80 |
Reality testing | 102.93 | 12.46 | 104.40 | 11.46 | 103.77 | 13.12 | 106.23 | 11.35 | 0.54 |
Flexibility | 101.47 | 15.41 | 98.00 | 13.03 | 102.27 | 14.74 | 106.27 | 13.66 | 2.54 |
Problem solving | 105.57 | 11.42 | 103.23 | 13.53 | 100.20 | 11.33 | 103.97 | 12.99 | 2.05 |
Optimism | 99.97 | 11.99 | 99.43 | 11.91 | 102.8 | 13.72 | 106.40 | 11.87 | 2.39 |
Happiness | 98.77 | 12.93 | 99.70 | 11.81 | 104.3 | 13.79 | 107.40 | 9.76 | 0.41 |
Std. dev, Standard deviation; Z, Z score approximation of the Wilcoxon statistic for the significance of DD value attributable to intervention:
Difference is statistically significant for total emotional quotient:
Statistically significant difference after applying the Bonferroni adjustment for the five main component scales:
Statistically significant difference after applying the Bonferroni adjustment for the 15 sub-component scales:
The effect of the coaching intervention on the experimental group was evidenced by the DD score analyses which reflect in the significance of the Z scores (see
Total EQ (
Intrapersonal (
Interpersonal (
Stress management (
The following Bar-On EQ-i sub-component scores differed significantly in respect of the two groups after allowing for Bonferroni adjustments (
Self-regard (
Empathy (
The findings indicated that coaching had a statistically significant and practically meaningful positive impact on the total EQ, intrapersonal, interpersonal, stress management, self-regard and empathy dimensions of the EQ-i scale. The largest notable changes based on Cohen’s effect size indicators occurred on the total EQ-i scores and on the intrapersonal component.
This quantitative phase of the study provided evidence that coaching was an effective approach to develop some of the most important ESCs of leaders as measured by the Bar-On EQ-i scale (Syndell
However, Groves et al. (
In studying the interview data, the researchers identified themes that described the impact of coaching from the perspectives of the leaders and their supervisors. Guided by a deductive approach they distinguished 5 main themes and 13 subthemes, which they arranged according to the conceptual correspondence between these themes and the Bar-On EQ-i composite and subscales. The themes reflected an overall improvement in intrapersonal skills, interpersonal skills, stress management, adaptability and general mood. The improvements were noted when compiling summative subtheme descriptions reflecting the actual responses of the participants interviewed. In these descriptions (see below), Bar-On’s definition of each ESC (as cited in Prins
Intrapersonal skills (self-regard, emotional self-awareness, assertiveness, independence and self-actualisation) can be defined as ‘an enhanced understanding, expression and development of the inner self’. The respondents reported improved self-confidence and self-respect, better understanding and expression of emotions and the impact thereof on others, more assertiveness in communicating emotions, more self-directed and self-regulated thinking and actions, and improved understanding of and drive to achieve self-actualisation. Examples of the participants’ responses relating to emotional self-awareness are:
‘Well from before the coaching and after the coaching, definitely an improvement in my intrapersonal skills, particularly the self-awareness that was very big for me. You know, just the ability to be aware of what is going on before one can respond to the environment.’ [Leader 2].
‘And I think I have sensed that in the last six months or so, [Leader 2] has become a bit more reflective. She thinks about things first, she thinks about different ways of doing things. So, you just get the sense she now thinks before she speaks, whereas in the past she didn’t always do that.’ [Supervisor of Leader 2].
Interpersonal skills (empathy and interpersonal relationships) can be defined as ‘an enhanced capacity for empathy and interpersonal functioning’. The respondents reported an improved ability to try to understand the feelings of others, enhanced listening skills, improved leader-team connection and engagement, openness to the opinions of others and feedback. Examples of the participants’ responses relating to interpersonal relationships are:
‘I think interpersonal relationships have improved. Previously, before the coaching I would say that my relationships were very much at arm’s length. And maybe not, we were not interested in getting to know other people better, the person on the other side, but the coaching has given me some techniques … We have gone from the point of view that, you know this is an opportunity to have a private talk between two people and just open up any areas. And I think the end result of that was that I felt much more in tune with my staff.’ [Leader 6].
‘If I think about some of my interactions with staff, some of the feedback that I receive from them was that [Leader 6] now sets up a session with them, if he sees that there are concerns. He addresses it one-on-one.’ [Supervisor of Leader 6].
Stress management (stress tolerance and impulse control) reflects ‘the increased ability to withstand stressors without losing control or falling apart’. The respondents reported an improved understanding of and capacity to deal with stress, better management of volatile emotions and a deeper awareness of the triggers of impulses. Examples of the participants’ responses relating to impulse control are:
‘So if I am angry, somebody is demonstrating a behaviour that to me is irresponsible. This is a key indicator for me. I need to acknowledge that is what is happening and not try to not be angry that the person is irresponsible and choose when to respond. So when I identify my anger, I am now able to choose not to respond in the middle of that.’ [Leader 3].
‘And then the other area that I sensed improvement as well is definitely around self-control. I think in the past I have experienced her to be quite impulsive and she would quickly go off and say something and sort of tie a flare to the mast without really giving it a lot of thought first.’ [Supervisor of Leader 3].
Adaptability (flexibility and problem solving) can be described as ‘the ability to cope with environmental demands by being able to size up situations realistically and to deal with problematic situations’. The respondents reported an improved ability to adjust their emotions, thoughts and behaviours to changing situations and conditions, coupled with a better ability to define and solve problems.
General mood (optimism and happiness) reflects the individual’s ‘ability to enjoy life and a general level of contentment’. The respondents reported improved levels of being motivated, positive, happy and appreciative of experiencing the moment and an improved ability to engage with others.
Next, the themes were interpreted guided by an inductive coding approach. The main themes that emerged were ‘the facilitators and obstacles to effective coaching’, ‘experiences of the coaching journey’ and ‘coaching outcomes’. Although the themes contained many insightful details about the coaching intervention, this discussion will be limited to a summary of the most important observations.
Adjusting an existing leadership style and being inclined to fall back on old styles emerged as possible difficulties hampering the success of a coaching intervention. Individual readiness factors, which include self-efficacy and receptivity to engage in EI development, behaviour change and coaching in general, may also play a role in determining the success of an intervention (Groves et al.
The leaders experienced the coaching journey as valuable, enjoyable, relevant and impactful. They described their relationships with their coaches as positive and supportive and their coaches as knowledgeable and open-minded. A good coaching partnership is fundamental in facilitating change and growth within leaders (Carey et al.
Overall, the outcome of the coaching process was considered to be positive. The general theme that emerged was that leadership was effective, interpersonal skills had improved, the relationship between team members was one of trust and support and enhanced ESCs would contribute to organisational success. These results corroborate the findings of studies (as cited in Van Oosten
Trustworthiness of the qualitative research findings was achieved through triangulation, credibility and member checking. Triangulation was attained through exploring the views of the leaders and their supervisors and determining which views they shared or did not share. Credibility was ensured by making voice recordings of the responses of participants representing diverse leaders who had different thoughts about EI skills and coaching. Member checking was applied to obtain interviewees’ confirmation of the recorded data and the interpretation thereof. Ambiguities or misunderstandings were cleared up, and a printed copy of the findings was presented to each interviewee for confirmation (Guion, Diehl & McDonald
Both the quantitative and qualitative data gathered in this study showed that the coaching intervention had had a positive impact on the ESCs of the participating leaders in a financial services company.
The qualitative nature of the theme descriptions provided rich data that assisted with the conceptualisation of the changes brought about by the intervention, and the qualitative data enriched the statistical findings in the quantitative phase of this study.
The most notable finding in the quantitative phase, which was supported by the qualitative findings, was the significant positive impact EI coaching had on the intrapersonal, interpersonal, stress management, self-regard and empathy components of Bar-On’s model of ESCs. These components have important implications as far as leadership effectiveness is concerned. Syndell (
The qualitative results suggested that, besides social responsibility and reality testing that never emerged as relevant themes, all the components and sub-components that contributed to the EQ-i scale showed improvements. Researchers have generally recognised the importance of all the EQ-i components as factors contributing to leadership success (Kotzé & Venter
The results of this study have significance for academic research, the profession of executive coaching, the practice of leadership development, and organisations in general. The research results support the effectiveness of a holistic, longer term, spaced and goal-focused coaching intervention as a means to develop the ESCs of leaders in a financial services company in South Africa.
As mentioned earlier in the article, the study aimed to address the following restrictive issues that Groves et al. (
The value of supplementing quantitative research evidence with qualitative research evidence in the form of meaningful subthemes that support the quantitative findings was demonstrated in this study. According to Lincoln and Guba (
Factors that most likely contributed to the success of the coaching intervention were the following: (1) It specifically focused on the development of ESCs that was relevant to the outcome, namely, effective leadership behaviour. (2) It involved longer term, regular and short coaching interventions to facilitate deeper, more effective EI improvement, which contributed to the effectiveness of the leaders (McEnrue et al.
Research has shown that more effective leadership is needed to increase organisational performance. Judging from academic contributions, effective leaders use more EI skills than do less effective leaders (Coetzee & Schaap
As is the case with all studies, this study had its limitations, and these are acknowledged by the authors.
The use of self-reporting questionnaires increased the risk of leaders responding to the questionnaires in a socially desirable way, which might have affected the construct validity of the study. However, the built-in response bias correction formula discussed earlier might have had a mitigating effect. The EQ-i questionnaire was initially completed by the control group in a high-stakes situation as the measure formed part of a pre-employment selection battery, whereas the second application (posttest) did not take place in a high-stakes situation. Dunlop, Telford and Morrison (
Furthermore, the context and purpose of the post-assessment in respect of the experimental and the control groups differed. Considering the experimental group’s enhanced knowledge of the constructs measured, posttest scores might have been a reflection of construct knowledge rather than of true behavioural changes (Dunlop et al.
The quasi-experimental design used for the purposes of this study might have resulted in variables other than race, gender and age to influence the outcome of the study. The qualitative research results did, however, indicate that meaningful changes ascribed to the intervention had taken place.
The following recommendations for future research could be made in the interest of advancing the practice and profession of coaching and broadening the knowledge base in coaching as an approach to develop the EI of leaders:
To validate the impact of coaching on the EI of leaders over time, more longitudinal empirical research should be conducted using randomised experimental and control group studies.
Given the problems inherent in self-report assessments (which were applied in this study to measure the EI of the leaders), the Bar-On EQ-i 360-degree assessment should be used in future research. This type of assessment would allow superiors, peers, and/or followers to rate participative leaders on relevant characteristics. A significant variance between self-evaluation and the evaluation of others might give a better indication of whether or not participative leaders’ perceptions of their leadership style are accurate (Syndell
The professional practice of coaching as part of the discipline of leadership development is new and still evolving. It is posited that coaching as a leadership development strategy has nevertheless already been proven to be effective and to produce various positive outcomes. Despite the evidence obtained from research that suggests that executive coaching may be an effective leadership development strategy, insufficient research has been done that demonstrates the impact of theoretically substantiated and appropriately designed coaching interventions on the ESCs of leaders. It has been broadly articulated that adequate theory building in respect of the effectiveness of specific development processes and outcomes is dependent on a sufficient number of well-designed and informative research studies (Groves et al.
The authors declare that they have no financial or personal relationships that may have inappropriately influenced them in writing this article.
M.D. conceptualised the study, did an initial literature review, developed the coaching model, planned and executed the interventions, did the empirical data gathering and qualitative analyses and presented the findings as part of a doctoral degree study under supervision of the second author. She provided the first draft of the article and later made inputs on the reviewed versions of the article. P.S. wrote the article for publication with major revisions and updates of the literature component, refined the presentation of the methodology section, conducted the statistical analyses, updated and refined the overall presentation and structure of article and wrote the discussion of the results and the various concluding sections of the article.
The coaching model was interpreted and translated into 16 design principles which were followed to guide and inform the coaching process, as discussed below.
Design principles of the preparation phase:
Design principles of the development phase:
Design principles of the transfer phase:
Design principles of the evaluation phase: