Predictions suggest Africa’s combined Gross Domestic Product (GDP) will be amongst the fastest growing on earth in the next two decades. An expectation is that the majority of African homes will enter the consumer class, and educational performance will improve significantly within the next two decades. Nonetheless, organisations competing in Africa face numerous challenges. These include its size and complexity, transformational population growth, an abundance of talent but a lack of skills, a scarcity of large companies, the relatively small size of big companies, a poorly understood business environment, conflict, poverty and corruption. To successfully address these challenges, entrepreneurial energy and a strategy to develop leadership skills at scale is required.
The purpose of this study was to develop and assess whether a leadership skills development model which integrates six conceptual constructs is valid as a model for developing leadership skills in African fast-moving consumer goods (FMCG) business-networks.
The study took a pragmatic approach and followed an explanatory sequential design typology. An initial quantitative stage was conducted. Using inductive thematic interpretation methodology, the qualitative results helped explain the initial quantitative results. Applying confirmatory factor analysis, three data-model fit tests gave empirical evidence that the leadership skills development model was a good model fit.
The outcomes and practical value of this study included a theoretically relevant, empirically validated leadership skills development model, Super-Cube® for African FMCG (Fast Moving Consumer Goods) business-networks, as well as a range of recommendations on how to develop leadership skills throughout Africa.
Leadership skills development is complex, especially in a rapidly changing environment. This study is the first that proposes a leadership skills development model for African FMCG business-networks that directly contributes to the discipline of leadership and leadership development.
Optimism about Africa’s prospects remains widespread and decisive throughout the region (Chironga, Desvaux & Leke
Given the continent’s growing population and Gross Domestic Product (GDP), Africa is likely to become the most potent territory for several industries, particularly the Fast Moving Consumer Goods (FMCG) industry, including packaged food, consumer electronics, beauty and personal care (Leke, Chironga & Desvaux
The lack of big businesses in Africa is not solely a problem for shareholders, but predominately for society, as these organisations are catalysts for economic growth. Big companies are like baobab trees: they tower above others, have deep roots, and have a longer life expectancy. Generally considered, the tree of life, the baobab creates healthy food that maintains several areas. Organisational baobabs promote local industry: they provide financial resources for wages and taxes, operational improvements, innovation, and the adoption of technological advancements. Similar to baobabs, big organisations create ecosystems, promoting small-business creation throughout their supply chain. These large firms are generally better positioned to attract investment, helping them to compete globally. Africa has space, the need, and a growing population to nurture billion-dollar companies across the continent (Leke et al.
‘Africa Rising’ refers to a rising middle class, although a vast opportunity still exists at the ‘bottom of the pyramid’ (BOP) (Euromonitor International
Fast-moving consumer goods products such as food and beverages account for the largest share of BOP households’ expenditure across the African continent. However, many of the products purchased are from informal, open-air markets. Reaching these markets requires creative distribution strategies from FMCG businesses. In Africa, partnering with established brands is generally the best way to expand market presence; and gaining access to BOP consumers in Africa usually requires an unconventional distribution network. However, the FMCG industry offers excellent potential (Euromonitor International
The overarching challenge faced by organisations in the African FMCG industry is to innovate their business model and develop skills to build sustainable and resilient businesses. Africa comprises consumers whose economic activity is greater than India’s and will soon have twice the number of smartphone users as North America (Leke et al.
Capitalising on opportunities offered by both the BOP and the growing middle-class consumer bases will be critical in African countries with bespoke product and service offerings for each segment. Companies will require an in-depth understanding of Africa’s diverse consumer profiles to be able to offer products and services to local, regional and country-specific preferences. Growth in modern retailing requires a business to understand the distribution model and consumer preferences for informal retailing, which is likely to remain dominant for some time (Euromonitor International
Although poverty in Africa remains prevalent, by reassigning challenges as an invitation for innovation, organisational leadership can help their businesses and Africa to prosper (Euromonitor International
Leadership is likely the most critical yet complex challenge facing humanity. Although widely discussed, there is a distinct lack of consent regarding the evolving concept of leadership (Eberly et al.
Cohen (
Holt, Hall and Gilley (
Businesses that succeed in Africa need to invest in talent, and that investment will reap significant rewards for them as they grow. Developing talent is a strategic role, which should be considered part of the value chain and not outsourced to the national university system. Africa has an abundance of talent. Converting this raw talent may only require a short training program that could be enough to unlock the skills that businesses need. Notably, a company that wants to expand into Africa should have a plan for doing good, while doing well (Chironga, Desvaux & Leke
To address the leadership challenges and the business prospects in FMCG businesses in Africa, an opportunity to cultivate the next generation of leaders and build the required leadership capability for doing good while doing well in Africa.
Considering the above, research gaps concern:
The need for the unification of traditional and contemporary leadership theories into a more coherent approach.
The need for African FMCG businesses to improve leadership capacity to realise potential.
As such, the research problem statement is as follows:
Leadership skills development initiatives are built on questionable assumptions (Cohen
The study has two major research objectives:
Theoretical objectives: conceptual model development (to determine theoretically relevant leadership constructs; theoretically relevant approaches to leadership skills development; and to conceptualise a model for leadership skills development).
Practical objectives: conceptual model assessment (to perform a quantitative assessment of the appropriateness of the leadership constructs within a conceptual model for leadership skills development; perform a qualitative assessment of leadership skills and the leadership skills development requirements to critically explore how the conceptual model for leadership skills development could develop leadership skills in the African FMCG sector).
The outcomes and practical value of this study included a theoretically relevant, empirically validated leadership skills development model for African FMCG business-networks, as well as a range of recommendations on how to develop leadership skills throughout Africa. Leadership skills development is complex, especially in a rapidly changing environment. This study is the first that proposes a leadership skills development model for African FMCG business-networks which directly contribute to the discipline of leadership and leadership development.
The remainder of this article is organised as follows: a review of the applicable literature, developing the conceptual model, a summary of the method followed and the rationale for using an explanatory sequential mixed-methods approach in this study. Then the findings are discussed followed by the conclusion and ideas for further research.
Leadership research extends throughout the behavioural, social, and physical sciences, management, the disciplines of psychology, anthropology, politics, sociology, biology, along with evolutionary studies. In contrast to the comparatively large account of leadership theory and research, the orderly analysis of leadership development (generally defined to also include leader development) has a relatively short history. The ancient Egyptian hieroglyphs also portrayed the leader, follower, and leadership (Yammarino
More than a century of leadership study has resulted in some paradigm shifts and much confusion. On numerous occasions, leadership scholars have grown frustrated with minor theoretical advances and contradicting results. Bennis (
Of all the hazy and confounding areas in social psychology, leadership theory undoubtedly contends for the top nomination … Probably more has been written, and less is known about leadership than about any other topic in the behavioural sciences. (pp. 259–260)
Equally, Hackman and Wageman (
Leadership is central in the managerial and mainstream media world. Corporate, government, military, and not-for-profit organisations all require the development of effective leadership, which is currently a major concern for all kinds of organisations (Day et al.
Leadership is possibly the most critical event in the field of human behaviour, as almost nothing gets done without it. Leadership is also one of the social sciences most significant studied phenomena, in which the scrutiny afforded is, not surprisingly, taking into consideration that it is a widespread action marked in both humanity and the animal species (Bass & Bass
While leadership may be simple to recognise in practice, it is often hard to define. Considering the multifaceted study of leadership, a generally agreed definition of leadership does not presently exist. Also, Antonakis and Day (
Leadership is a formal or informal contextually rooted and goal-influencing process that occurs between a leader and a follower, groups of followers, or institutions. The science of leadership is the systematic study of this process and its outcomes, as well as how this process depends on the leader’s traits and behaviors, observer inferences about the leader’s characteristics, and observer attributions made regarding the outcomes of the entity led.
Following the establishment of theoretically relevant leadership dimensions and attributes, six constructs were conceptualised. The six leadership constructs are choices, principles, mental (cognitive), emotional, physical, and spiritual, which are perceived as humancentric, multidimensional and inherently incorporate the notion of being developmental, that is, they can be developed.
Leadership constructs, associated theories, and skills.
Leadership constructs | Theory, author(s) and a brief description or explanation | Leadership skills for development |
---|---|---|
(1) Choices (e.g. morals, values, attitude, decision-making, judgement, risk-taking) | Choice theory: Levin and Milgrom ( |
E.g. Decision-making; risk assessment; moral decision-making |
(2) Principles (e.g. ethics, context, situation, principles) | Principle theory: Caldwell et al. ( |
E.g. Context; ethics; governance |
(3) Mental (e.g. cognitive, logos, problem-solving, knowledge, experience, understanding, memory, education, goals) | Cognition theory: Prinsloo and Barrett ( |
E.g. Thinking; learning; teaching |
(4) Emotional (e.g. emotion, pathos, social, motives, self-efficacy, relational, communication, social, interpersonal, influence, conflict resolution) | Emotional intelligence theory: Doe et al. ( |
E.g. Social skills; motivation; self-awareness |
(5) Physical (e.g. physical, stress, body, physiological) | Physical wellbeing theory: Hattie et al. ( |
E.g. Stress management; nutrition; exercise |
(6) Spiritual (e.g. character, ethos, integrity, trust, purpose, trust-building, role-model) | Spirituality Scale: Avolio ( |
E.g. Individual, team, and organisational leadership (purpose, meaning, and values) |
The researchers conceptualised a six-construct leadership model from the leadership theory discussed and presented previously. The conceptual leadership model was represented as a cube and named Super-Cube®. The Super-Cube® model implies that each side of the cube integrates to create a holistic, coherent, multifaceted, human-centric perspective.
Foti and Hauenstein (
In the conceptualisation and naming of the conceptual model, the word cube refers to ‘you’, where the letter ‘u’ in the word cube represents you – a leader. The word super is an adjective, in which case it implies you are wonderful, fantastic, great, marvellous, fabulous, excellent, splendid, superb, brilliant, superior, enhanced, and outstanding, etcetera. The objective is to provide a model that promotes and enables
The conceptual model proposes Buber’s I-Thou relation, which appreciates people as equals (Morgan & Guilherme
The first two theories of the conceptual leadership model represent the choices and principles constructs. Choice theory is the notion that making choices is a process of evaluating available options, requiring multiple skills, and then choosing the preferred option based on a consistent criterion (Levin & Milgrom
Principle theory provides a foundation of guiding principles that relate to a person’s ability to act by the rules or standards (Caldwell, Karri & Vollmar
The following four theories represent the remaining (cognitive, emotional, physical, and spiritual) constructs of the conceptual leadership model.
Concerning the conceptual leadership model, the cognitive construct represents a leader’s mental intelligence. Cognition faculties refer to a person’s knowledge, skills, and ability to solve problems, to plan, to reason, to think conceptually, to grasp complex concepts, and to learn quickly, as well as learn from experience, and the ability to teach; these cognitive skills are essential aspects of critical importance within and throughout the leadership context (Mumford et al.
Emotional intelligence theory comprises of a four-branch ability model of a person being able to perceive, use, understand and manage emotions (Mayer, Salovey & Caruso
The physical construct of the conceptual model for leadership skills development represents a leader’s physiological well-being and is conceptualised as physical intelligence. The ‘Wheel of Wellness’ theory concerns a person’s physical health and the fact that stress management, nutrition, and exercise are all vital aspects of the physiological well-being of a leader (Hattie, Myers & Sweeney
The spiritual construct of the conceptual model for leadership skills development conceptually represents the conduit between the leader’s choice construct and the principle construct. The construct also symbolises the fusion between the mental, emotional, and physical aptitude of a leader. Delaney’s (
Based on the conceptual leadership model, the researchers define:
Leadership is a multidimensional, human-centric and principled approach towards the progression of humanity.
The above section discussed the topic of leadership and presented a six-construct conceptual leadership model. This section provides a review of leadership development literature towards the conceptualisation of a leadership skills development model.
Researchers suggest that leadership development is inherently a multi-level process (Avolio
Leading and leadership development is a dynamic and longitudinal process, which involves the consideration of time (Day
A notion exists that leaders are ill-prepared to handle future challenges. Drucker (
One issue that undermines the effectiveness of leadership development initiatives is the focus on generally short-term, episodic-based thinking of how development occurs. Typically, the notion of leadership development has been viewed as a series of unconnected, discrete programmess with minimal assistance in integration across the development episodes (Vicere & Fulmer
The focus in the field relates to developing individual leader skills, although there is no assurance that improved leadership will result. As such, leadership involves collaboration within a given situational context. Thus, effective followers are required, along with effective leaders (Hollander
Despite the distinction between leader development and leadership development, it is not an either/or proposition. Instead, advanced initiatives seek to establish ways to combine individual leader development with collective leadership development to further overall leadership capacity in teams and organisations (Day & Dragoni
Leadership skills development summary.
Leadership theory, concepts and models | Author(s) and a brief description or explanation | Leadership skills development |
---|---|---|
Nature vs Nurture | De Neve et al. ( |
Practice; experience |
Leader development through time | Day and Thornton ( |
Personality; psychosocial; emotional |
What occurs in leader development | Day and Thornton ( |
Cognitive; emotional; principles; decision-making |
How best to promote leadership development | Conger ( |
Personality; values; emotion; vision; principles; cognition. |
Learning theory | Illeris ( |
Content (cognitive); incentive (emotional); interaction (social). |
The unification of the conceptual leadership model (discussed and presented in Section 2.2) and the leadership skills development findings in
A conceptual model for leadership skills development.
In the conceptual model for leadership skills development, the leadership skills development process is considered inherent in each of the six leadership constructs in the model.
The leadership skills development rationale follows that (1) leadership can and does develop over time (De Neve et al.
Based on the conceptual leadership skills development model, the researchers define leadership skills development:
Inherent skills developed by structured methodologies concerning the learning theory, regarding the development of multidimensional, human-centric and principled approaches towards the progression of humanity.
The following section reviews the research design and methodology to help address the research questions.
Pragmatism is typically associated with mixed-methods research as an overarching philosophy (Tashakkori & Teddlie
Due to the complex nature of the research problem addressed in this study, an overarching philosophy of pragmatism has been embraced, as it combines two worldviews that provide the benefit of addressing the research problem from multiple perspectives, that is pragmatism is one philosophy that includes post-positivism and constructivism (McMillan & Schumacher
In this study, the researchers used both quantitative and qualitative research methodologies, known as mixed-methods research. In mixed-methods research, three core typologies exist, namely: (1) convergent designs; (2) explanatory sequential designs; and (3) exploratory designs (Creswell & Plano Clark
This study required that the qualitative results would further explain the initial quantitative results, regarding the deductive analysis of a conceptual model for leadership skills development. As a result, this study took an explanatory sequential design typology which started by conducting a quantitative stage and following up on the results at a qualitative stage
An in-depth case study was done to develop a leadership skills development model. This was based on a quantitative research method, in which the results were used to assist with further questions during the interviews, as a qualitative research method in an explanatory sequential mixed-methods design.
For the quantitative research, ordinal scales were used to develop response options. Scales were developed to measure, inter alia, the knowledge, beliefs, attitudes, judgements, and sentiments concerning the six constructs of the conceptual leadership skills development model. Terre Blanche and Durrheim (
When developing the electronic questionnaire survey, the researchers took the following into account (Cooper & Emory
Strengths: The ability to access many participants; an economic process; an ability to ensure anonymity; and the potential to generalise to large populations.
Limitations and weaknesses: possible high non-response rate; possible potential misinterpretation of questions; and excluding questions that may have been of value.
Following the conceptualisation and operationalisation of the six constructs in the conceptual model for leadership skills development, the researchers developed a questionnaire survey. The questions aimed to evaluate the constructs of the conceptual model for leadership skills development.
The questionnaire consisted of the following sections:
Research project overview;
Informed consent; and
Leadership question evaluation:
Choices construct: three questions; Principles construct: three questions; Mental construct: three questions; Emotional construct: three questions; Physical construct: three questions; and Spiritual construct: three questions.
The questionnaire was subsequently converted into an electronic format (using the online Google Forms application). The electronic questionnaire was designed to ensure each question had to be answered, negating the risk of missing values. Also, as the questionnaire was to be completed anonymously, the risk of bias (if the survey was not anonymous) offset the multiple-submission risk and additionally, participants had no incentive to complete the survey. The last step in the measurement development phase included a pre-test.
The target population (or unit of analysis) was contextualised within a leading FMCG company that operates exclusively in African countries. The target population was further defined as employees who had a company email address and thus had access to email. An invitation to participate in the research study was emailed to the target population. Over 10 weeks, one hundred thirty-two (132) responses were received, corresponding to a 43.9% response rate.
Statistical analysis was undertaken by the Statistical Consultation Services of the North-West University using the Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (IBM SPSS/AMOS Statistics Version 25) consisting of descriptive and multivariate techniques. This research followed non-parametric statistical techniques as the focus of the study was on the order and ranking of ordinal scales (distinct and ranked) (Terre Blanche & Durrheim
The primary intent of a mixed-methods explanatory sequential design is for the qualitative phase to explain the initial quantitative results (Creswell & Plano Clark
The data analysis comprised of thematic interpretation and aimed to explore and elaborate on the results from the quantitative results. The validity of the qualitative data was assured by applying the four criteria used to ensure a trustworthy study, namely credibility, transferability, dependability and conformability (Shenton
The credibility of the findings was secured by triangulating multiple perspectives to interpret a single set of data, as well as that the research findings could be combined on a more analytical macro-level of inference (Groenland & Dana
Terre Blanche and Durrheim (
To further address the research problem, validation of the conceptual model for leadership skills development was required.
A multivariate CFA technique was followed in this study as a CFA is a theory-testing approach, as opposed to a theory-generating approach (Stapleton
Confirmatory methods, following the specification of the priori factors, seek to optimally match the observed and theoretical factor structures for a given data set in order to determine the ‘goodness of fit’ of the predetermined factor model (Stapleton
The quantitative results of the appropriateness of the leadership constructs in a conceptual model for leadership skills development include the response rate, descriptive statistics of the organisation, construct validity and construct reliability. The online quantitative questionnaire had a 43.9% response rate. The age group with the highest population is those 36–45-year old, at 36% of the population. The second highest age group population is those 25–35-year old, at 28%. There is a small population of below 25 years old at 4%, and only 1% at over 65 years old. The gender population is relatively equal; however, there were slightly more female participants at 53% versus 47% of the male population. Thirty per cent of the population had an undergraduate qualification, 26% a postgraduate qualification, 12% of the population have a secondary qualification, 5% a certification and 5% a trade certification. Twenty-two per cent of the population did not indicate their qualification status.
Online survey questionnaire results.
Question number | Construct | Questions | Mean | Standard deviation |
---|---|---|---|---|
1 | Choices | How important is it for a leader to act morally? | 6.80 | 0.670 |
2 | Choices | How important is it for a leader to manage risk? | 6.46 | 0.868 |
3 | Choices | How important is it for a leader to make moral decisions? | 6.72 | 0.724 |
4 | Principles | How important is it for a leader to communicate and instil company values in the team? | 6.66 | 0.616 |
5 | Principles | How important is it for a leader to work ethically? | 6.83 | 0.413 |
6 | Principles | How important is it for a leader to ensure the company operates ethically? | 6.78 | 0.484 |
7 | Mental | How important is it for a leader to have good thinking skills? | 6.61 | 0.661 |
8 | Mental | How important is it for a leader to practise personal reflection? | 6.09 | 1.142 |
9 | Mental | How important is it for a leader to learn something new and teach and/or demonstrate what they have learnt? | 6.13 | 1.007 |
10 | Emotional | How important is it for a leader to work with the team, and involve the right people at the right time? | 6.70 | 0.549 |
11 | Emotional | How important is it for a leader to be motivated and disciplined to achieve an important goal? | 6.75 | 0.468 |
12 | Emotional | How important is it for a leader to communicate effectively with the team? | 6.87 | 0.336 |
13 | Physical | How important is it for a leader to consume healthy foods? | 5.05 | 1.530 |
14 | Physical | How important is it for a leader to manage personal and team stress? | 6.33 | 0.805 |
15 | Physical | How important is it for a leader to do some exercise? | 5.04 | 1.550 |
16 | Spiritual | How important is it for a leader to work toward achieving meaning, purpose and fulfilment in their life? | 5.95 | 1.152 |
17 | Spiritual | How important is it for a leader to lead and serve a team to achieve company objectives? | 6.70 | 0.523 |
18 | Spiritual | How important is it for a leader to lead a company to achieve the organisational dream (vision)? | 6.66 | 0.640 |
Confirmatory factor analysis was used as it provides a viable method for evaluating construct validity (Stapleton
Confirmatory factor analysis.
To determine the relative contribution of each variable, i.e. each question, a standardised regression weight analysis was performed.
Standardised regression weight results.
Question number | Question | Construct | Estimate |
---|---|---|---|
1 | How important is it for a leader to act morally? | Choices | 0.776 |
2 | How important is it for a leader to manage risk? | Choices | 0.377 |
3 | How important is it for a leader to make moral decisions? | Choices | 1.071 |
4 | How important is it for a leader to communicate and instil company values in the team? | Principles | 0.713 |
5 | How important is it for a leader to work ethically? | Principles | 0.529 |
6 | How important is it for a leader to ensure that the company operates ethically? | Principles | 0.622 |
7 | How important is it for a leader to have good thinking skills? | Cognitive | 0.614 |
8 | How important is it for a leader to practise personal reflection? | Cognitive | 0.495 |
9 | How important is it for a leader to learn something new and teach and/or demonstrate what they have learnt? | Cognitive | 0.710 |
10 | How important is it for a leader to work with the team, and involve the right people at the right time? | Emotional | 0.509 |
11 | How important is it for a leader to be motivated and disciplined to achieve an important goal? | Emotional | 0.804 |
12 | How important is it for a leader to communicate effectively with the team? | Emotional | 0.518 |
13 | How important is it for a leader to consume healthy foods? | Physical | 0.969 |
14 | How important is it for a leader to manage personal and team stress? | Physical | 0.386 |
15 | How important is it for a leader to do some exercise? | Physical | 0.955 |
16 | How important is it for leaders to work toward achieving meaning, purpose and fulfilment in their life? | Spiritual | 0.572 |
17 | How important is it for a leader to lead and serve a team to achieve company objectives? | Spiritual | 0.736 |
18 | How important is it for a leader to lead a company to achieve the organisational dream (vision)? | Spiritual | 0.773 |
Note: All standardised regression weights were statistically significant with a
The results from the standardised regression weights analysis determined the relative contribution of each variable (research question), and in this case, are noted as the estimate. Estimates values between 1.0 and 0.5 are acceptable; however, values of 0.3 are also considered acceptable. The choices construct had an estimate of 1.071, 0.776 and 0.377. While an estimated value of 1.071 is marginally higher than 1.0, it is deemed acceptable. The principles construct results of 0.713, 0.622 and 0.529, are deemed acceptable.
The results for the cognitive construct were 0.710, 0.614 and 0.495, all considered acceptable. The emotional construct results were 0.804, 0.518 and 0.509, all deemed acceptable. The results of the physical construct were 0.969, 0.955 and 0.386, which are all acceptable. The spiritual construct results were 0.773, 0.736 and 0.572, and all were deemed acceptable.
Construct-to-construct correlation results.
Construct-to-construct correlation | Estimate | |
---|---|---|
Choices ← → Principles | 0.303 | 0.004 |
Choices ← → Cognitive | 0.115 | 0.247 |
Choices ← → Emotional | 0.308 | 0.005 |
Choices ← → Physical | 0.058 | 0.481 |
Spiritual ← → Choices | 0.097 | 0.295 |
Principles ← → Cognitive | 0.643 | *** |
Principles ← → Emotional | 0.761 | *** |
Principles ← → Physical | 0.372 | 0.002 |
Spiritual ← → Principles | 0.792 | *** |
Cognitive ← → Emotional | 0.926 | *** |
Cognitive ← → Physical | 0.605 | *** |
Spiritual ← → Cognitive | 0.734 | *** |
Emotional ← → Physical | 0.455 | *** |
Spiritual ← → Emotional | 0.704 | *** |
Spiritual ← → Physical | 0.491 | *** |
Note: ***Represents a
The
Behr (
Construct correlation strength description.
Correlation value | Description |
---|---|
< 0.20 | Indifferent, almost negligible relationship |
0.20–0.40 | Definite but slight relationship |
0.40–0.70 | Moderate relationship |
0.70–0.90 | High and substantial relationship |
0.90–1.00 | Very high, rising to perfect relationship |
The highest, near-perfect correlation exists between the mental and emotional constructs. These findings suggest that an almost perfect relationship occurs in participants’ perception of leaders’ abilities to think, to learn, and their self-awareness, with their ability to perceive, use, understand and manage emotions. In relation to the conceptual model, the mental and emotional constructs are presented as being side-by-side, both acting as conduits between the choices and principles constructs.
The spiritual and principles construct-to-construct correlation is the next strongest with a 0.792 result, defined as having a substantial relationship. The results support the construct operational definitions in which the spiritual construct is defined as a leader’s ability to act according to principles; and the principles operational definition being a leader’s ability to understand the rules and standards of social, economic, and natural laws. In the context of the conceptual model, the spiritual construct is considered the overall/primary conduit between the choices and principles constructs. This implies that a leader’s ability to choose should be based on principles, and that principles should influence a leaders’ decision-making ability or choice.
The principles and emotional construct-to-construct correlation is the third strongest correlation at 0.761. In the context of the leadership model, the principles construct represents a leader’s decision-making foundation; which, in this case, has a strong relationship with a leaders’ ability to manage their emotional intelligence, i.e. how they are to perceive, use, understand and manage their emotions.
The next strongest construct relationship occurs between the spiritual and mental constructs. In relation to the leadership model, the spiritual construct is defined as a leader’s ‘ability to understand the rules’, which has a strong relationship with that leader’s ‘ability to think and learn’ from the mental construct.
The spiritual and emotional construct-to-construct correlation is the next strongest and defined as having a high and substantial relationship. While the spiritual construct is considered the primary leadership conduit, mainly the fusion between a leader’s choices and principles, the emotional construct plays a significant role in a leader’s ability to manage emotions during interactions as either a leader or a follower.
The principles and mental relationship are considered moderate. In the context of the leadership model, the result suggests that the principles construct can moderately influence a leader’s mental capacity to learn and understand.
The next strongest relationship exists between mental and physical constructs. In relation to the leadership model, a leader’s ability to ‘think and learn’ has a moderate relationship with a leader’s ability to manage their physical intelligence, i.e. the ability to manage stress.
The spiritual and physical construct-to-construct relationship is the next strongest with a result of 0.491. The principles construct represents the ‘rules and standards’ which has, in the context of the leadership model, the ability to influence the physiological well-being of a leader.
The next strongest construct-to-construct relationship is the moderate relationship between emotional and physical constructs. The emotional construct represents a leader’s ability to manage their emotions. This result suggests that participants perceived that leaders’ emotions can moderately influence their stress and overall physiological well-being.
A definite relationship exists between the principles and physical constructs. In the context of the leadership model, the physical dimension of a leader is influenced by the principles construct, that is the physical domain is influenced by natural laws.
The choices and emotional construct-to-construct relationship are considered definite. In this context, leaders can make a choice to manage their emotions.
The next strongest construct-to-construct relationship is the relationship which exists between the choices and principles constructs. The relationship is considered definite, and in the context of the leadership model, the two constructs are opposite one another, implying that they support one another. The results of this study support the relationship.
The results from this study suggest that there is an indifferent or average relationship between the choices and mental constructs. Similar results were found in the construct-to-construct relationship between the spiritual and choices constructs. The choices and physical construct-to-construct was the lowest relational strength amongst the construct relationships.
The model fit statistics evaluate a model in relation to the fixed parameters applied to postulate the model and the approval or dismissal of the model (Stapleton
Model-fit and construct reliability distribution.
Model | CMIN/DF | CFI | RMSEA |
---|---|---|---|
Requirement | ~ 1:5 | ≥ 0.90 | < 0.100 |
Study results | 2.232 | 0.86 | 0.097 |
Study findings | Good model fit | Acceptable model fit | Good model fit |
Model-fit and construct reliability distribution.
Constructs | Cronbach’s alpha | Mean | Standard deviation |
---|---|---|---|
Choices | 0.74 | 6.66 | 0.62 |
Principles | 0.65 | 6.76 | 0.39 |
Cognitive | 0.60 | 6.28 | 0.72 |
Emotional | 0.62 | 6.78 | 0.35 |
Physical | 0.80 | 5.47 | 1.14 |
Spiritual | 0.63 | 6.44 | 0.62 |
Based on the quantitative results, it seems reasonable to suggest that the leadership constructs within the conceptual model for leadership skills development, as a case in the African FMCG sector, are statistically valid and reliable and are therefore considered appropriate.
Concerning the conceptual model, the results indicate that the mental construct had the most words at 31%, with the emotional construct marginally lower at 29%. The mental and emotional constructs, therefore, represent 60% of the words described by participants in the interview process regarding the leadership skills required by the FMCG. The principles and spiritual contribute 30%, with 18% and 12% respectively. Choices contribute 9% to the total word count and physical only 1%, with two words used from a total of 321 words.
With the qualitative results and findings, it seems reasonable to suggest that the qualitative phase in this explanatory mixed-methods study explains and elaborates on the initial quantitative results obtained from the quantitative strand.
Construct distribution results.
Summary of results.
Super-Cube® Model | Constructs | Measurement reliability | Qualitative results |
---|---|---|---|
Model-fit tests: CMIN/DF: 2.232; CFI: 0.86; and RMSEA: 0.097 | 1. Choices | 0.74 | 9% |
2. Principles | 0.65 | 18% | |
3. Mental | 0.60 | 31% | |
4. Emotional | 0.62 | 29% | |
5. Physical | 0.80 | 1% | |
6. Spiritual | 0.63 | 12% | |
Good model-fit = accepted as a model | Cronbach alpha = construct reliable | Interview: word count as a percentage (%) |
The six leadership constructs concern how the leadership skills integrate with the conceptual model.
Empirical evidence discussed in the quantitative strand notes the choices construct as the second most reliable (0.74) construct and this was supported and explained in the qualitative strand with an overall word count of 9%.
The choices construct concerns the primary construct in the leadership model. In this study, the ability to make choices is described as a process of considering available options, requiring multiple skills, and then choosing an option based on principles (Levin & Milgrom
The empirical results presented in the quantitative strand state that the principles construct is the third most reliable (0.65) and this was confirmed and explained in the qualitative strand with an overall word count of 18%. The principles construct concerns the foundational and guiding principles which relate to the ability to make decisions according to rules or standards (Caldwell et al.
In this study, principles concern the following:
Social principles: the skills and abilities to care for other people, putting their needs first, serving others and acting as a servant for the good of another person, i.e. embracing the principles of servanthood leadership.
Economic principles: the skills and abilities to operate efficiently and effectively in business operations. For example, a business should adhere to economic principles and should make a profit to ensure continuity – to pay employees, suppliers, and fund other business-related activities. Importantly, the business must adhere to ethical principles, that is, the rules and standards concerning statutory and regulatory requirements in the context in which they manifest and where the business operates.
Natural law principles: the skills and abilities to understand and apply the STEM etcetera and natural law, that is gravitational principles.
The understanding of principles will inevitably vary based on personal circumstances, e.g. education and experience; however, improving the understanding and adherence (choices construct) to principles is considered foundational, and intentionally designed as the foundation of the leadership skills development model.
Empirical evidence discussed in the quantitative strand notes that the mental construct is the least reliable (0.60), yet was supported and explained in the qualitative strand with the highest word count of 31%. The mental construct represents the skills and ability to solve problems, to plan, to reason, to think, to grasp complex concepts, to learn quickly, learn from experience, and the ability to teach and impart knowledge (Mumford et al.
In this article, the mental construct refers to the speed and depth of information processing skills when solving complex problems. Evidence suggests that mental intelligence can improve to provide the knowledge and skills required to perform complex leadership tasks (Mumford et al.
The empirical results presented in the quantitative strand state that the emotional construct is the fifth most reliable (0.62), yet was explained in the qualitative strand with an overall word count of 29%, the second highest. The emotional construct represents the skills to perceive, use, understand and manage emotions (Mayer et al.
The emotional construct concerns the skills of self-awareness, self-regulation, motivation, empathy, and social skills. The first three skills are regarded as personal competence, and the last two skills are considered social competence. All five skills determine how relationships are handled and are skills that can be improved (Doe et al.
Empirical evidence discussed in the quantitative strand note that the physical construct is the most reliable (0.80), yet was hardly discussed in the qualitative strand with the lowest overall word count of 1%. The physical construct represents the physiological well-being of a person.
The management of stress, nutrition, and exercise are considered essential aspects of physical well-being (Hattie et al.
The empirical results presented in the quantitative strand state that the spiritual construct is the fourth most reliable (0.63) and was confirmed and explained in the qualitative strand with an overall word count of 12%. The spiritual construct represents the conduit between the choices and principle constructs and unites the four innate aspects of a person’s existence (mind, heart, body and spirit), so that people are intrinsically motivated to achieve important goals (Delaney
The concluding findings from this research indicate that leadership can be developed through a series of events to complete the overall wholeness of a person.
Africa is huge with an abundance of space to build scalable business-networks. Given the continent’s rapidly growing population and GDP, Africa is likely to become the most compelling territory for the FMCG industry. The vast unmet needs of Africa and its unfulfilled demand make it a continent ripe for entrepreneurship and innovation at scale.
A smart and original approach to expanding into Africa calls for an innovative business model to unleash talent at scale, as well as find operational solutions to improve business resilience in order to cultivate business leaders of a new nature in the century ahead. It was demonstrated that African FMCG businesses require urgent leadership interventions to improve performance. Importantly, businesses wishing to grow in Africa should have a plan for doing good, while doing well.
This study, therefore, addressed the following two gaps:
The need for the unification of traditional and contemporary leadership theories into a more coherent approach.
The need for African FMCG businesses to improve leadership capacity to realise potential.
In this study, the aim was to create a leadership skills development model for African FMCG business-networks, to contribute toward developing talent to improve business potential in the African FMCG sector.
The first three research questions and objectives aimed to address the research gap concerning the unification of traditional and contemporary leadership theories into a more coherent approach. The last three questions aimed to address the research gap concerning the need for African FMCG businesses to improve leadership capacity as to realise potential.
In this study, ordinal scales were used to develop response options. Scales were developed to measure, inter alia, the knowledge, beliefs, attitudes, judgements, and sentiments concerning the six constructs in the conceptual leadership skills development model. Terre Blanche and Durrheim (
A thorough review of leadership and leadership development literature resulted in the conceptualisation and operationalisation of a multidimensional conceptual model for leadership skills development comprising six constructs. The key contribution of the conceptual model to leadership skills development was that it effectively incorporates traditional and contemporary leadership theories into a holistic, integrated, coherent and universal approach to leadership skills development.
The leadership skills development model, if adopted by an organisation, will result in a leadership skills development initiative being built on theoretically relevant and empirically validated constructs. This approach should help organisations build the necessary leadership skills to improve leadership capacity and ultimately improve business potential. This perspective should also challenge FMCG (and other) organisations and learning institutions to look toward a new approach to leadership skills development.
Offering leadership programmes beyond the FMCG alliance is a fundamental objective. The end-goal is to offer leadership skills development programmes to everyone; that is, from early childhood development, general education, further education, and higher education, i.e. throughout a person’s lifecycle, and across the African continent.
Various concepts of leadership and leadership skills development were discovered during the review of the literature. While the researchers are confident that this study contributed to the creation of a leadership skills development model, it was completed in a leading case study on FMCG in Africa and the results cannot be generalised to other type of organisations in other industries.
The opportunity for future research is vast. As leadership is a complex and evolving concept with many variables, opportunities for future research exist, particularly in evaluating the effectiveness of leadership interventions. Based on this study, future research could include, for example, research at an individual level, business level, FMCG Group level, FMCG Alliance level, and an industry and African continent level. Research opportunities exist for longitudinal studies in which subjects are assessed over a period. Opportunities also exist to assess subjects in the various contexts in which they operate, for example, at home, and with their family in the contexts in which people live.
This study not only presented a leadership skills development model, but also provides a wide range of recommendations on how leadership skills could be developed from an individual, business, group, alliance, and African continent perspective in the FMCG industry. This study should also broaden the debate concerning the evolving concept of leadership and leadership skills development throughout the African FMCG industry. Furthermore, this study should allow leadership skills development institutions to enhance leadership skills development interventions, incrementally, and in a coherent way.
Fast-moving consumer goods businesses in Africa need to work towards developing Africa’s talent at scale to unlock the skills that businesses require to promote local economies and create ecosystems throughout the supply chain. The researchers hope to continue research in the field of leadership, particularly relating to the effectiveness of leadership interventions.
The authors declare that they have no financial or personal relationships that may have inappropriately influenced them in writing this article.
This article forms part of a DBA study at the University of KwaZulu-Natal by C.R.M. with T.G.P. as the supervisor assisting with the conceptual construction of the study and manuscript writing.
This article followed all ethical standards for research with direct contact with human subjects. The Humanities & Social Sciences Research Ethics Committee at UKZN had granted full approval for this research protocol with reference number: H.S.S./1893/018D.
This research received no specific grant from any funding agency in public, commercial or not-for-profit sectors.
The data that support the findings of this study are available from the corresponding author, T.G.P. upon reasonable request.
The views and opinions expressed in this article are those of the authors and do not necessarily reflect the official policy or position of any affiliated agency of the authors.