The days of the sharing economy being considered a niche market have long passed, as the sharing economy has become a profitable and budding market, attracting large investments and a multitude of customers (Möhlmann 2015:193). Since their rapid growth in popularity following the 2008 financial crisis (Kuswanto et al. 2020:76), the sharing economy and platform business models have become part of many consumers’ daily existence in terms of accommodation-, entertainment- and transportation-related services (Lee et al. 2018:829; Wang et al. 2022:197). Of particular interest to this study are Transportation Network Companies (TNCs) and their ride-hailing platform business models. Typically, TNCs use smartphone application platforms to link drivers and customers requiring ride-hailing services. Drivers (fellow community members) cooperating with TNCs transfer customers (service recipients), using their own cars, receive payment by card or in cash, as is the case in some developing countries (Wadud 2020).

The long-term survival of TNC brands is important. In addition to stimulating economic development (Gao, Wang & Yao 2022), these companies may contribute to reducing road traffic and subsequently car pollution (Wang et al. 2022:198). Customers sharing rides may also benefit from greater flexibility, compared to public alternatives (Guan et al. 2022), and save on travel expenses. Nevertheless, in recent years, growth in the ride-hailing sector has contributed to intense competition among TNCs, with many new platforms entering the market and TNC brands aiming to achieve market dominance (Guo, Li & Zeng 2019:1044). Moreover, switching between ride-hailing companies does not require much effort, which poses a threat to the sustainability of TNC brands (Cohen, Fiszer & Kim 2021:2432).

In this turbulent business environment, advocacy presents a viable tool for attracting customers and maintaining market share. Advocacy behaviours are perceived by customers as more credible than commercial media, may enhance a firm’s reputation, and contribute to growth in market share (Iyer, Yazdanparast & Strutton 2017:647; Yi & Gong 2013:1280). Therefore, customers viewing the TNC brand positively, sharing their thoughts with other customers (fellow service recipients), and recommending the service of the TNC brand to them, may contribute to more customers hailing rides from the TNC brand and remaining loyal to it.

Of further interest is that particularly strong support has been found for the notion that customers experiencing service quality and relationship quality benefits, such as affective commitment, may be motivated to engage in favourable advocacy behaviours (Ahmadi 2019:51; Bendapudi & Berry 1997; De Matos & Rossi 2008:581; Nguyen-Phuoc et al. 2020:96; Ok et al. 2020:132; Yavas, Benkenstein & Stuhldreier 2004:144–145). Recent research in the ride-hailing industry has further elucidated the matter by indicating that affective commitment towards the TNC brand may influence advocacy behaviours, but is more likely to be fully mediated by service quality in a ride-hailing context. The authors claimed that, supported by the defensive motivation theory (Chen, Duckworth & Chaiken 1999), ride-hailing customers’ strong emotional bonds with the TNC brand may favourably affect their judgements of the service provided, which could stimulate further advocacy behaviours (Van Tonder & Petzer 2021).

The perspective of affective states influencing cognition also seems to be acknowledged within the broader research domain. For example, according to Kühn and Petzer (2018:262), the ‘affect-cognition link’ denotes a relationship between customers’ affective states and the assessment of their surroundings. Clore and Schnall (2005:439) affirmed that affective states may impact attitude formation. Additionally, in her widely cited experimental research, Edwards (1990:203) acknowledged the possibility that cognition may follow affect. However, still absent from the affect-cognition-behaviour relationship identified in the ride-hailing service context, is an understanding of the role of customers’ perceptions of perceived service justice received. Along with investigations of service quality, it seems necessary to account for the influencing effect of customers’ perceived justice (service fairness) experienced from the TNC brand. Fundamentally, customers are keen on not only favourable, but also equitable treatment from their providers (Chen et al. 2012:400). Subsequently, their reactions to services are dependent on judgements of both service quality (favourableness) and perceived justice experienced (Carr 2007:108). Previous research further denotes that perceived justice may positively influence customer satisfaction levels and behavioural intentions of loyalty towards the service provider, such as advocacy (Carr 2007:115; Chi, Wen & Ouyang 2020:1029) and service quality (Kwortnik & Han 2011). Moreover, considering the premises of the defensive motivation theory (Chen et al. 1999) and other scholarly findings in the field (Clore & Schnall 2005:439; Edwards 1990:203; Kühn & Petzer 2018:262; Van Tonder & Petzer 2021), it is plausible that perceived justice experienced may similarly be influenced by customers’ strong emotional bonds with the TNC brand.

A further related concern is the extent to which the potential interplay between affective commitment, service quality, and perceived justice motivates the baby boomer (born between 1943 and 1970) and the Generation Y (born between 1980 and 2000) cohorts to become involved in the promotional activities of TNC brands in the sharing economy. These cohorts were significant to this study, given that they appeared to have a vested interest in ride-hailing services. Ride-hailing services are beneficial to older adults who cannot drive anymore and may not want to rely on friends and family for transportation. It has also been noted that Generation Y consumers are less inclined to travel by private car and are open to alternative modes of transport, including ride-hailing services (Alemi et al. 2018:49, 60; Gurău 2012:103; Hole, Zhong & Schwartz 2010:88; Mitra, Bae & Ritchie 2019:700; Winter et al. 2020:5). However, the likelihood of the two cohorts to perform the role of a ‘marketing agent’ and advocate on behalf of the TNC brand, and the extent to which their emotions and service perceptions may stimulate these behaviours, is still poorly understood. Extant literature denotes that older customers may be more easily satisfied and more faithful towards their service provider (Trabelsi-Zoghlami, Berraies & Yahia 2020:1642). Generation Y consumers seem to be more doubtful, expecting high levels of service (Kueh & Voon 2007:656; Valentine & Powers 2013:598). Further investigation of the above matters would allow for greater understanding of the interrelationships between affective commitment, service quality, and perceived justice influencing advocacy behaviours of valuable baby boomers and Generation Y cohorts, and thus the extent to which they may act as marketing agents for the TNC brand.

Against this background, the objective of the current research was to explore the relationships between affective commitment, service quality, and perceived justice, their influence on customer advocacy intentions, and the extent to which the generational cohorts (i.e. baby boomers and Generation Y) moderate the magnitude of the relationships established. Subsequently, this research makes three important contributions to marketing and quality literature. Firstly, the study contributes to the conversation regarding affective states influencing cognition (perceived justice and service quality) and provides a fresh perspective of the affect-cognition-behaviour relationship within a ride-hailing service context. Secondly, the study advances knowledge of customer advocacy in relation to TNC brands. The proposed model provides a more comprehensive perspective of the extent to which customers’ overall service perceptions, as balanced by service quality and perceived justice, may impact advocacy in the sharing economy, as well as the mediating role that service quality and the moderating role that generational cohorts may play in influencing these behaviours. Third, the proposed model paves the way for further research on generational cohorts’ potential to perform a ‘marketing agent’ role in the sharing economy and to aid TNC brands in managing a competitive advantage amidst fierce competition.

A theoretical framework is presented next, providing more insight into perceived justice, affective commitment, service quality, and customer advocacy, as well as the theories grounding these constructs. Moreover, the hypotheses of the study are formulated for empirical testing. Subsequent to an outline of the research methodology, the research findings are addressed. Thereafter, theoretical and practical implications are highlighted and guidelines are provided for further research on this topic.

As positioned earlier, competition in the ride-hailing industry is fierce, with many TNC brands offering ride-hailing services. In this turbulent environment, customer advocacy behaviour presents a cost-effective and credible solution for enhancing TNC brand credibility and to grow market share (Iyer et al. 2017:647; Yi & Gong 2013:1280).

Consequently, the current investigation helps to explain the matter by providing novel insight into the extent to which overall assessment of service quality and perceived justice (service fairness) may be interrelated and impact on customer advocacy intentions and the magnitude to which customers’ emotional bonds with the TNC brand may be responsible for this development. The findings further indicate the degree to which generational cohorts moderate the direct and indirect relationships investigated. The investigation of the individual direct, indirect, and moderating effects further contributed to several theoretical and managerial implications.

Confirmation of affective commitment as an antecedent of service quality (H4) and perceived justice (H5) supports the argument that customers’ emotional bonds with the TNC brand may influence service perceptions (Chen et al. 1999; Van Tonder et al. 2020). It seems that affective commitment does not only impact service quality in a ride-hailing context (Van Tonder & Petzer 2021), but could also influence customers’ views of perceived justice experienced. Another interesting observation is that the relationships between affective commitment and the individual service perceptions do not seem to be moderated by generational cohorts (H10a and H10b). Hence, even though Generation Y may be less loyal to service providers than baby boomers (Soares et al. 2017:523), it seems that once they have established emotional bonds with the brand, they are, similar to baby boomers, likely to develop favourable perceptions of the service levels experienced. Furthermore, the impact appears to be strong in both cohorts, considering the large effect sizes that were obtained (H4 and H5). The implication of these findings is that, in the sharing economy, the value of affective commitment extends beyond mere relationship building with customers (Fullerton 2005) and behavioural consequences. Furthermore, affective commitment may strongly affect service perceptions, and thus the study’s findings offer further validation for the application of the defensive motivation theory (Chen et al. 1999) in an informal service context and within diverse age cohorts.

Grounded in social exchange theory (Blau 1964), it was expected that views of service quality and perceived justice would contribute to customers of ride-hailing services voluntarily engaging in customer advocacy behaviours to reciprocate favourable treatment experienced. Yet, the current findings evidence that only H1 was supported in both cohorts, while H2 was significant in the Generation Y cohort. Hence, it appears that at face value and considering H8a, views of perceived justice may not contribute to customer advocacy in the baby boomer cohort. However, further insight into the matter is obtained by also considering H6 and H9. It seems that service quality provides an indirect path for connecting perceived justice with customer advocacy intention and this indirect effect is significantly different and much stronger in the baby boomer cohort (β = 0.41) than in the Generation Y cohort (β = 0.11). Moreover, considering H7 and H8b, denoting significant differences between generational cohorts, it seems that as proposed, Generation Y (characterised by being sceptical with a strong sense of fairness and expectations of high service quality) may be less likely than older baby boomers to develop perceptions of service quality as a result of service justice experienced, and may also be less likely to be motivated to act as ‘partial employees’ of the TNC brand and engage in customer advocacy behaviours to reward the TNC brand for the service quality experienced.

Nevertheless, a further interesting observation is that, while a relatively low indirect effect was established in the Generation Y cohort, the direct effect between perceived justice and customer advocacy intention was still relatively large (H2). These findings are significant, as it seems that although the high service standards of Generation Y may contribute to them being more reluctant to develop perceptions of service quality when perceived justice is experienced, their ‘strong sense of fairness and ethics’ (Hernaus & Vokic 2014:619) may motivate them to reward the TNC brand with advocacy behaviours when service fairness is experienced. Perceived justice may not strongly convince Generation Y that a high service standard was experienced. However, their perceptions of perceived justice as informed by emotional bonds (affective commitment) with the TNC brand are significant, and could motivate them to still perform their ‘marketing agent’ role and engage in customer advocacy behaviours to reward the TNC brand for the service fairness experienced.

The implications of these findings are that, while it is important to focus on service quality as a key antecedent of customer advocacy (Ahmadi 2019:51; De Matos & Rossi 2008:581; Van Tonder & Petzer 2021; Yavas et al. 2004:144–145), perceived justice is also relevant and seems to directly or indirectly influence customer advocacy behaviours. In a sharing economy context, the service standards of the generational cohorts may further affect the magnitude of the indirect effect between perceived justice and customer advocacy intentions through service quality.

From a managerial perspective, the relationship between service quality and advocacy has been verified multiple times in the formal service environment (Ahmadi 2019:51; De Matos & Rossi 2008:581; Yavas et al. 2004:144–145) and appears to be relevant also in a ride-hailing context, as noted previously (Van Tonder & Petzer 2021) and confirmed in this study. Hence, TNC brands aiming to obtain a competitive advantage through customer advocacy may be doing well by focusing on service quality. It is especially important for baby boomers to perceive service quality, as they are most prone to show advocacy behaviours when high service standards are experienced. Service quality may be enhanced by, for example, ensuring drivers are always on time for scheduled appointments, the vehicle is always neat and clean, and driving rules are kept. Additional indicators of service quality may include the driver’s friendliness, playing the radio station requested by the customer, and providing occasional discounts, which demonstrate care towards the customer.

Furthermore, it could be useful for TNC brands to recognise the importance of fostering affective commitment between them and customers, and to build strong emotional bonds with customers to improve their perceptions of service quality. Based on the research findings, both the baby boomer and Generation Y cohorts may benefit from this strategy. In developing emotional bonds with customers, TNC brands could demonstrate care by ensuring that the interaction between drivers and customers is professional and the atmosphere inside the vehicles is pleasant and relaxing. Smartphone application platforms connecting customers and drivers also serve as a viable tool for obtaining constructive feedback from customers and strengthening emotional relationships with them. Transportation Network Companies brands should harness these big data opportunities to take advantage of customer feedback to foster affective commitment. Additionally, customers must be treated as individuals and feel recognised by the brands. Online chatbots assisting with booking services or dealing with customer questions could aid in personalising the service, while incentives to regular customers may further promote bonding.

However, TNC brands also need to concentrate on perceived justice (service fairness) to further enhance customer advocacy intentions. This is especially essential in motivating advocacy behaviours of Generation Y consumers, who have high service standards, but strongly value fair behaviour. Transportation Network Company brands are expected to focus on clearly defined service standards and staff training to ensure fair service is provided. Potential problems must be anticipated and problem-solving policies must be designed to ensure service failures are dealt with fairly. Fair service treatment could also include ensuring customers are appropriately informed about travel and service arrangements; customers are not confronted with unreasonable barriers when, for example, requesting refunds; and protection of consumer privacy.

Perceptions of perceived justice could be enhanced further by focusing on affective commitment and developing strong bonds with customers. By following this approach, customers who are emotionally attached to the TNC brand may develop heightened perceptions of fair treatment and perceived justice, as denoted by views of empathy, politeness, and courtesy experienced (La & Choi 2019:208; Ortiz et al. 2017:439–440; Voorhees & Brady 2005:194).

Finally, opportunities must be provided for the baby boomer and Generation Y cohorts to engage in customer advocacy behaviours through social-media platforms and online reviews. For instance, hashtags could generate interesting conversations among customers experiencing a sense of community and wanting to endorse the TNC brands. Key questions may prompt conversations and steer customer endorsements in the desired direction. Moreover, TNC brands could ask customers for testimonials and encourage them to share inspiring stories with other customers on online review platforms.

The current research provides more insight into the affect-cognition-behaviour relationship in a ride-hailing service context. Specifically, this study verified the extent to which ride-hailing customers’ views of service quality and perceived justice, as informed by affective commitment towards the TNC brand, may impact advocacy intentions, as well as the mediating role that service quality and the moderating role that generational cohort may play in influencing these behaviours. The research findings further advance the understanding of differences between baby boomers and Generation Y and their potential to aid brands in the sharing economy to manage a competitive advantage amidst fierce competition.

Future research could validate the model among other generational cohorts, including Generation X and Generation Z, and verify the extent to which the emotional bonds of these customers influence their service perceptions and customer advocacy behaviours. Most of the respondents in the current study indicated their main reason for booking rides with the TNC brand as needing a transfer for social visits. It would be interesting to draw comparisons between the perceptions and behaviour of the current sample and those of respondents who book rides with TNC brands for work-related purposes. The current study measured overall views of service quality and perceived justice. Greater insight is needed into the extent to which affective commitment may impact interactional, procedural, and distributive justice at an individual level (Blodgett et al. 1997:188; La & Choi 2019:208; Ortiz et al. 2017:439–440), as well as the various sub-levels of service quality (Dagger et al. 2007). The survey was conducted in South Africa, a developing country with a sub-standard public transportation system. It may be worthwhile to test the same model in a more developed country, considering that respondents with access to advanced public transportation systems may be less committed to TNC brands and less inclined to judge the services of a TNC brand favourably. Further research could explore the extent to which the intended levels of customer advocacy may vary if the communication is directed towards customers belonging to the same cohort as the respondent, or another cohort (Mazzarol, Sweeney & Soutar 2007:1488). Finally, the confounding effect of brand familiarity within the proposed model was not assessed and future research may want to further investigate this matter.