Since the dawn of the new millennium, sales performance has become an important area of research exploration in the business-to-business (B2B) and sales fields (Javalgi, Hall & Cavusgil 2014; Mai & Liao 2022; Zallocco, Bolman Pullins & Mallin 2009). The growing interest in sales performance is largely due to the significant role played by direct selling in the business-to-business (B2B) marketing domain (Itani, Agnihotri & Dingus 2017). Business-to-business selling is a complex process and the sales performance of B2B sellers drives their future profitability in a competitive and constantly evolving environment (Rangarajan et al. 2022). Successful salespeople are vital to the future survival of B2B sellers and directly influence their ability to grow sales potential through positive relational engagement (Bowen et al. 2021; Wang et al. 2019). Consequently, scholars (e.g. Aydin, Koc & Kaya 2017; Terho, Giovannetti & Cardinali 2022) are calling for a deeper understanding of the factors guiding sellers’ motivations to strengthen overall sales performance in a B2B context. Düzgün, Telli and Telli (2019) and Shin et al. (2021) argued that an understanding of the motivational elements of sales performance is significant for sales force management, since B2B sellers’ future sales success is influenced by their employees’ sales performance (Homburg, Hohenberg & Hahn 2019). Yet, a gap remains in B2B literature concerning the dimensions that impact the motivations of sellers’ sales performance in a B2B context.

Whether internal or external, motivational factors serve as stimulants influencing individual ability to execute sales tasks (Abbasi, Goh & Ariffin 2019; Fu et al. 2017; Suen et al. 2022). A meta-analysis of the research work of Churchill et al. (1985) and Verbeke, Dietz and Verwaal (2011) highlighted three broad categories of individual motivations that are imperative within the context of sales performance, namely cognitive choice, goal orientation, and work engagement. Within these categories, Churchill et al. and Verbeke et al. identified six motivational dimensions of motivation, namely spending time on planning, salesperson’s intrinsic motivation, performance goal orientation, salesperson’s output productivity, enthusiasm, and job involvement. Scholars, such as Geng and Pelton (2022) and Good, Hughes and Wang (2022b), confirm the need for further research exploring the influence of intrinsic and extrinsic motivational factors as drivers of sales performance in multiple business settings. This is especially important considering that previous research concerning the drivers of sales performance has explored such drivers primarily from a buyer’s perspective (Barry & Gironda 2018; Guenther & Guenther 2020; Mullins, Menguc & Panagopoulos 2020). Yet, sellers are critical partners in a B2B relationship and it becomes increasingly important to also explore their perspective in the B2B relationship-building process (Kauffman & Pointer 2022).

The key role sellers play in a B2B context cannot be underestimated, since they function as a link between manufacturers and business buyers (Koponen & Rytsy 2020; Mai & Liao 2022). Thus, a seller’s perspective is becoming increasingly important to explore, due to the competitive nature of the B2B sales environment (Rodriguez et al. 2022b). Considering the critical role played by motivational factors (intrinsic and extrinsic) in overall performance, the study tests a six-dimensional framework of B2B sellers’ motivations in sales performance. The need for the study is also supported by the contemporary call from Jaramillo et al. (2007) for the advancement of knowledge in the sales domain.

It should be noted that the seminal work of Churchill et al. (1985) and Verbeke et al. (2011) on sales performance only partially uncovered the importance of the effect of intrinsic and extrinsic motivational factors on sales performance. No prior studies have explored the significance of the influence of motivational factors on sales performance in a B2B context. To address this research gap, further research is required to secure an enhanced understanding of the intrinsic and extrinsic motivational factors that can impact sales performance in a competitive B2B environment (Matthews & Edmondson 2022). This is especially needed considering that motivational factors directly influence the total sales effectiveness of B2B sellers in an open market (Buciuniene & Skudiene 2009; Herjanto & Franklin 2019). Thus, this study perceives motivational factors (intrinsic and extrinsic) to be indicative of sales performance from the perspective of a seller in a competitive B2B marketplace.

This study contributes to sales management theory and the sales industry by developing a B2B framework of motivational indicators of sales performance. Hence, the study tests a six-dimensional framework of B2B sellers’ motivations in sales performance. Therefore, the study validates the seminal work of Churchill et al. (1985) and Verbeke et al. (2011) on the motivational indicators of sales performance. Through such a validation, sales managers are given insights and direction regarding the intrinsic and extrinsic elements of motivation that should be considered within a B2B context. Moreover, this study adds value to the sales management theory and industry by exploring the six-dimensional framework of motivation from a seller’s perspective in a B2B setting. This is significant, considering that the largest portion of B2B research on sales performance is conducted from a buyer’s perspective.

The article starts with a brief outline of the need for the study and the contribution it makes. This is followed by an orientation towards the research meta-analysis that informs the research gap being explored. In addition, the theoretical foundation is provided to support the formulated aim for the study, the methodology applied, as well as the results flowing from the data analysis conducted. The article concludes with a focused discussion on the results and the proposed recommendations.

It was the groundbreaking work of Churchill et al. (1985), founded on an analysis of Walker et al. (1977), that highlighted motivation as a critical element of sales performance (refer to Table 1). Their seminal work explored 409 citations from 63 journals and identified motivation as one of four drivers guiding the sales performance of sales personnel. However, Churchill et al. could not secure an in-depth analysis of the different categories of motivation that influence salespeople’s sales performance. Thus it was the research work of Verbeke et al. (2011) that categorised the drivers of sales performance with a strong alignment with the motivation of salespeople. These seminal authors explored 389 studies and various drivers of sales performance that reflect a strong focus on motivational categories, such as cognitive choice, goal orientation, and work engagement. It was the revolutionary research work of Verbeke et al. that called for a more comprehensive exploration of the motivation categories impacting future sales performance. Scholars (e.g., Buciuniene & Skudiene 2009; Conde, Prybutok & Thompson 2021; De Jong et al. 2021) concur, stating that salespeople’s motivations are imperative in driving their overall sales performance. Consequently, further exploration of motivation as a driver of sales performance is required.

Considering the meta-analysis on sales performance indicated in Table 1, it is asserted that motivational indicators of sales performance can assist sales managers regarding which categories and dimensions of motivation to focus on. However, such an exploration is secured from the perspective of a seller in a B2B context. Sales management literature has published broadly from a buyer’s perspective (Bolman Pullins et al. 2000; Good et al. 2022a; Kalra, Briggs & Schrock 2023), and numerous researchers have called for further studies in B2B sales from a seller’s perspective (Høgevold et al. 2022; Mai & Liao 2021; Ohiomah, Benyoucef & Andreev 2020). Furthermore, the important role played by sellers in a B2B relationship has been broadly acknowledged in sales management literature (Ohiomah et al. 2020; St Clair et al. 2018). Such acknowledgement relates specifically to sellers’ engagement role as B2B salespeople with B2B customers, emphasising their critical role in the B2B sales process (Guesalaga 2016). Scholars (e.g. Lam, DeCarlo & Sharma 2019) concur, arguing in favour of value-driven customer engagement between B2B sellers and their customer base when making sales.

Through a customer-centred approach towards sales performance, salespeople should secure a value-driven outcome for all parties when making a sale (Latinovic & Chatterjee 2022; Ulaga 2018). Understanding that B2B buyers want to benefit from the sales, B2B sellers can develop sale strategies that will align with the product and service expectations of their business buyers (Paesbrugghe et al. 2018). As such, salespeople’s motivations are imperative in securing a profitable sales outcome for B2B sellers, since these sales individuals directly engage with B2B buyers to make sales (Good et al. 2022a). To address this research gap, a stronger emphasis is required on the dimensions that influence the sales performance of salespeople, who are an inherent part of the sales strategy of the B2B seller. Moreover, salespeople are responsible for the professional management of B2B customers and the development of an in-depth understanding of the needs and expectations of B2B buyers (Peñalba-Aguirrezabalaga et al. 2021). By doing so, mutual understanding towards sales expectations is secured and the sales profitability of the B2B seller is improved (Good & Schwepker 2022; Rusthollkarhu, Hautamaki & Aarikka-Stenroos 2021).

Emanating from the research meta-analysis, this study aims to examine a six-dimensional framework of B2B sellers’ motivations in sales performance. The following secondary objectives were formulated to assist in addressing the primary research objective:

The study is founded on two theories: (1) the theory of individual differences on task performance (TP) and contextual performance (CP) as purported by Motowidlo, Borman and Schmit (1997), and (2) the self-determination theory (SDT). Task performance refers to an employee’s ability to deliver on TP requirements (Yousaf, Yang & Sanders 2015), while CP encompasses actions that are not officially authorised, but positively impact the overall work environment in which the employee operates (Hameed, Khwaja & Zaman 2023). Task performance and contextual performance theory argues that employees are influenced by different factors that drive their motivations (Lado & Alonso 2017; Uraon & Gupta 2021). This implies that the unique character of employees (as individuals) determines whether they are receptive or non-receptive to intrinsic or extrinsic stimuli that impact their motivational drive (Pradhan & Jena 2017). Therefore, the argument proposed is that individuals are different in their cognitive abilities and are impacted differently by factors (internal and external) that are inherent to their individuality (Carroll 1978).

The argument proposed by SDT is that employees who are intrinsically motivated to do their job do so based on the enjoyment they receive from their work (Vansteenkiste, Niemiec & Soenens 2010). Contrastingly, extrinsically motivated employees are guided by factors external to individual employees, such as financial rewards, the possibility of promotion, the image obtained from a position or the performance (Gagné & Deci 2005). As such, SDT purports that individual employees’ cognitive choice, goal orientation, and work engagement ability are defined by enablement, which is impacted by intrinsic and extrinsic factors related to the individuals or the environment in which they operate (Rigby & Ryan 2018; Ryan & Deci 2014). Against this background, this study proposes a six-dimensional framework of B2B sellers’ motivations in sales performance.

The proposed conceptual framework for the study is depicted in Figure 1 and is founded on the different intrinsic and extrinsic motivational dimensions of sales performance. These motivational dimensions of sales performance are applied within a B2B seller’s context. The proposed six-dimensional framework is based on the research works of Churchill et al. (1985) and Verbeke et al. (2011), who suggested six motivational dimensions of sales performance. The emphasis of this study is on three broad motivational categories and their six dimensions, which require attention regarding the management of sales performance in a B2B context. Furthermore, a deeper understanding of the selected motivational dimensions can assist sales managers to secure the improved management of B2B sellers in terms of their overall sales performance. By developing enhanced knowledge of the six intrinsic and extrinsic dimensions of motivation through a deeper understanding of these indicators (i.e. spending time on planning, salesperson intrinsic motivations, performance goal orientation, salesperson output productivity, enthusiasm, and job involvement), sales management will be enabled to secure a positive influence on B2B sellers’ sales performance.

This study aims to test a six-dimensional framework of B2B sellers’ motivations in sales performance (refer to Figure 1). As such, the framework proposed is founded on the meta-analysis of Churchill et al. (1985) and Verbeke et al. (2011). Consequently, this study contributes to sales management theory by proposing a framework of motivational dimensions that stimulates the total sales and cost-effectiveness of B2B sellers.

Figure 1 postulates that the development of comprehensive knowledge of the three motivational categories of sales performance and their suggested subdimensions can enable sales management to stimulate B2B sales performance successfully.

Through an in-depth meta-analysis (refer to Table 1), different motivational categories of sales performance are identified and discussed in detail below.

The study was quantitative and exploratory-descriptive in nature. It was built on the outcomes reported in the meta-analyses on sales performance by Churchill et al. (1985) and Verbeke et al. (2011). Dimensions from both meta-analyses underpinned this study’s six-dimensional framework in the context of sales performance. In addition, the dimensions of B2B sellers’ motivations in sales performance and the related questionnaire items were borrowed and modified from previous studies in an iterative process. The study’s population encompassed 315 carefully selected Norwegian companies. These companies were also representative of a range of companies from different industries and corporate sizes in the product-orientated business sector of Norway (i.e., services-orientated companies were not included). The companies were selected based on the Standard Industrial Classification (SIC 2007). To achieve the aim of the study – namely to test a six-dimensional framework of B2B sellers’ motivations in sales performance – key informants (hereafter referred to as respondents – i.e., sellers, team leaders, sales managers, key account managers, and regional managers) who were interested in partaking in the study were purposefully contacted through LinkedIn. A non-probability purposive sampling technique informed the selection of the sample. A Qualtrics link to the questionnaire as well as an introductory letter (that was inclusive of information on the research team, such as their contact details) were provided to respondents. In addition, two screening questions were included at the end of the questionnaire concerning the respondents’ (1) total years of sales experience and (2) total years of sales experience in the current company. These questions served the purpose of verifying the competence of the participating sales executives. This is in line with research by Campbell (1955), who suggested that the experience and competence of a study’s participants are enough to fill in the questionnaire in relation to the subject matter. Furthermore, the items used for the different constructs in the study were obtained from original sources for each multi-item measure of B2B sellers’ motivations as follows: cognitive choice (spending time on planning [Shannahan et al. 2015]; salesperson’s intrinsic motivation [Spiro & Weitz 1990]), goal orientation (performance goal orientation [VandeWalle et al. 2000]; salesperson’s outcome productivity [Dwyer et al. 2000]), and work engagement (enthusiasm [Schaufeli et al. 2002]; job involvement [Buchanan 1974]).

A five-point Likert-type scale was used across the items of all dimensions, with the anchor points of 5 (‘strongly agree’) and 1 (‘strongly disagree’). These items are indicated in Table 2.

The key conditions that were set to secure that the right respondents participated in the study were that: (1) they had to be a salesperson with a budget responsibility and measured against this budget, and (2) their main responsibility consisted of being actively involved in selling, not managing others to sell. Email reminders were sent or telephone calls were made to inspire respondents to complete the questionnaire within a period of 7 days after the first request had been sent to them. Of the 315 questionnaires sent out, 236 responses were received, securing a response rate of 74.9%.

After editing and cleaning, the data were inserted into Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS) 25.0. Using SPSS 25.0, descriptive statistics were determined to obtain information on the industry sample of respondents. Moreover, univariate and multivariate statistical techniques were applied to examine the data gathered in this study from the 18-item questionnaire. The results are presented and discussed in the following section.

The results of this study are satisfactory, demonstrating that the dimensions of B2B sellers’ motivations, which originate from the meta-analyses by Churchill et al. (1985) and Verbeke et al. (2011), are relevant in a B2B sales setting. The dimensions of B2B sellers’ motivations applied in the study are relevant based on: (1) cognitive choice, that is spending time on planning (Shannahan et al. 2015) and salesperson’s intrinsic motivation (Spiro & Weitz 1990), goal orientation, including performance goal orientation (VandeWalle et al. 2000) and salesperson’s outcome productivity (Dwyer et al. 2000), and work engagement, namely enthusiasm (Schaufeli et al. 2002) and job involvement (Buchanan 1974).

We contend that the results in this study offer a platform for further research in the context of B2B sellers’ sales performance. Further research may apply the six-dimensional framework of B2B sellers’ motivation in relation to their objective and subjective performance. Moreover, the results of the six-dimensional framework could consider dimensions of motivation in relation to B2B sellers’ economic and non-economic satisfaction. Another research opportunity is to examine the association and relationships of the structural properties of the B2B sellers’ motivation dimensions with the other sales performance indicators (i.e., sellers’ skill level, role perception, and aptitude as well as the influence of organisational and environmental indicators on B2B sellers) presented in the meta-analyses by Churchill et al. (1985), Verbeke et al. (2011), and Walker et al. (1977).

Sales force motivation has been widely confirmed in B2B literature as a critical element in driving individual salespeople’s ability. An in-depth understanding of the intrinsic and extrinsic factors that stimulate salesperson motivation is imperative for B2B sellers, strengthening their competitive advantage in a highly competitive market environment (Good et al. 2022a). Although motivation is an individualistic trait, the proposed six-dimensional framework provides a guide to the need to focus on cognitive choice, goal orientation, and work engagement as key drivers of salesperson motivation in a B2B context. This conformation has been validated recently by scholars, such as Itani, Chonko and Agnihotri (2022a) and Koponen et al. (2019). They have confirmed the need to develop a deeper understanding of cognitive choice as a precursor to salesperson motivation as promulgated by this study. These scholars further argued that an individual salesperson’s ability to plan a sale strategy and the overall outcome of such implementation influence the overall level of motivation of the individual salesperson. Consequently, sales planning is a crucial part of a salesperson’s success, which influences the intrinsic motivation level of the seller. Furthermore, by planning according to sales needs, the salesperson is better prepared for the seller-buyer engagement, which could positively influence the cognitive state of the seller prior to and post engagement. As such, sales management (through engaging leadership) needs to become increasingly aware of this in their leadership style towards salespeople in a B2B context.

A new school of thought has also been developed that confirms the need for wider exploration of the influence of goal orientation on the motivational level of an individual salesperson (Yaghtin, Safarzadeh & Zand 2020; Zheng et al. 2023). As purported by the proposed framework in this study, sales managers need to become more aware of salespeople’s psychological needs, where aspects like acceptance of being, provision of positive inspiration through communication, and acknowledgement of performance become key influencers of motivation. This outcome is confirmed by scholars (e.g. Sleep et al. 2020) who argue that goal setting by a salesperson needs to be a collaborative venture between employer and employee through the mediating role of transformational sales leadership. As such, a transformational leadership agenda could develop goals with salespeople that align with their individualistic needs, available capabilities and skills as well as overall strategic objectives of B2B sellers. Through such an approach, salespeople’s individual motivation is positively influenced, leading to enhanced productivity in the long term (Gao et al. 2020; Hooi & Chan 2022).

In addition, work engagement has been proposed as an important element in the development of a positive motivational mindset by salespeople. The study confirmed the importance of enthusiasm and job involvement as key elements of work engagement that should be considered when influencing salespeople’s motivational level in a B2B context. This finding aligns with findings by a United States study, establishing that through mutually inclusive goal setting, salespeople feel more inclined to perform better, since they feel acknowledged and valued in the performance management process (Inyang, Agnihotri & Munoz 2018). Through a deeper understanding of the ability and emotional needs of a salesperson, sales management can become more aware of an individual salesperson’s potential to deliver performance expectations. Moreover, through such an approach, sales management acknowledges awareness of a salesperson’s performance ability, which could positively stimulate individual motivational levels (Good & Schwepker 2022).

Job involvement was also proposed as a key element of work engagement that could impact salespeople’s overall motivational level. A B2B seller’s ability to develop strategies that could enhance a one-on-one engagement with employees will drive salespeople’s feelings of belonging and pride towards the B2B seller brand. The creation of platforms where salespeople can share their voice and interact with management through collaborative decision-making that also influences their individual work engagement ability results in the development of warm feelings towards this organisation as a place to work. Furthermore, this will develop a sense of pride in salespeople concerning working for the B2B seller, which strengthens overall levels of motivation. This finding is supported by Kumar et al. (2018), who stated that work engagement is an important driving force for employee motivation. The authors argued that employee motivation is strengthened by creating a work environment that is supportive of employees’ needs and challenges, developmental towards employees’ in-house skill and emotional needs, and understanding of employee work-life balance needs.

This study assessed B2B sellers’ motivations in the context of sales performance as well as their intrinsic and extrinsic motivations. The research offers an increased understanding on how to structure B2B sellers’ motivations in a six-dimensional framework, including cognitive choice (i.e. spending time on planning and a salesperson’s intrinsic motivation), goal orientation (i.e. performance goal orientation and salesperson’s outcome productivity), and work engagement (i.e. enthusiasm and job involvement).

The six-dimensional framework of B2B sellers’ motivations demonstrates validity and reliability in the context of sales performance. However, further studies are necessary to test the framework’s validity and reliability across B2B settings. The framework may also be verified in other B2B settings and countries. It would be valuable to test the six-dimensional framework beyond the European business setting, for instance in North America, South America, Asia, and Africa.