The biographical data guarantee the validity, relevance and applicability of the study’s conclusions to entrepreneurship in agriculture. Understanding the expert informants’ qualifications, history and experience ensures that the insights and consensus derived from the Delphi technique and other studies are grounded in substantial, relevant expertise. The biographical information contextualises the expert informants’ viewpoints, aiding interpretation of their responses and elucidating how their professional experiences may shape their opinions on the entrepreneurial abilities required for sustainable agriculture. Evaluating biographical data help assess the expert informant’s diversity and representativeness, ensuring that the entrepreneurial skills identified are widely relevant to upcoming commercial farmers.
The group consisted of 30 expert informants, evenly distributed among three main categories: academics, established commercial farmers and upcoming commercial farmers. Each category accounted for 33.3% of the experts, demonstrating that the study encompassed diverse opinions. The investigation included the perspectives of academics, commercial farmers and upcoming commercial farmers, as evidenced by the equitable distribution across the three categories. The experts were categorised into three age groups: 35–44 years, 45–59 years and 60+ years. The 60+ age group was the largest, accounting for 50% of participants, followed by the 45–59 age group, which comprised 41% of the sample. The 35–44 age group represented 9%, making it the least represented category and suggesting a transitional stage in professional careers. Overall, the sample was weighted towards older participants, with 91% of experts aged 45 years and above. This composition is advantageous for studies that require extensive professional experience, deep industry knowledge and a comprehensive understanding of historical trends in the agricultural sector. The inclusion of specialists aged 60 years and above, together with those in the 45–59 years category, ensured that the study benefited from both longstanding expertise and current practical insights. The age distribution, therefore, reflects a well-positioned group of professional informants capable of providing comprehensive analysis and informed perspectives grounded in experience.
The study examined the gender composition of 30 expert informants, with 73% male and 27% female. The predominant demographic group represented in the study was White, with comparatively lower representation from Black African, Coloured and other racial groups. White experts accounted for 76% of the total sample, while Black African experts accounted for 14%, contributing valuable perspectives to enhance diversity and equity within South Africa’s agricultural sector. Coloured experts comprised 5% of the sample, further strengthening the diversity of expert perspectives, while participants classified as Other represented the remaining 5%. This alignment indicates that the experts reflect the region’s demographic composition, in which White farmers have historically dominated land ownership and agricultural leadership.
The highest academic qualifications among the 30 expert informants ranged from Grade 12 to advanced academic credentials, with a substantial proportion holding university degrees, postgraduate qualifications, doctorates and professorships. This diversity in educational attainment is essential for promoting transformation and inclusivity within the agricultural sector, which are critical components of South Africa’s broader socio-economic development objectives. Experts with university degrees or higher are well positioned to provide informed perspectives on complex topics such as entrepreneurship, entrepreneurial skills and sustainability. The inclusion of participants with postgraduate degrees, doctorates and professorships further demonstrates the panel’s capacity to engage with the theoretical and practical dimensions of these fields at an advanced level. At the same time, a foundational level of educational attainment ensures that all participants are adequately equipped to understand and contribute meaningfully to discussions on entrepreneurship and sustainability. The expert’s academic credentials provide a robust foundation for the research, ensuring that specialists with profound knowledge of the topics examined guide the study. Aligning these credentials with the research’s emphasis on entrepreneurship and sustainability amplifies the study’s significance and potential influence.
The Delphi research indicated that the progression from prospective farmer to established commercial farmer is influenced by factors such as resource availability, training, experience, mentorship, market access, financial management and the completion of industry cycles. Since 60% of respondents indicated that acquiring the necessary knowledge and expertise to be regarded as experienced requires at least 5 years, lifelong learning remains essential.
The transition to commercial farming may take between 2 years and 3 years under favourable conditions, such as sufficient resources, training opportunities, market access and government support. However, for many individuals, this process can take 5–10 years or even 10–20 years, depending on resource availability, technical expertise, geographic location, funding and the adoption of sustainable practices. Both the literature and qualitative findings support a timeframe of 5–10 years as the most common period required to become an established farmer, often aligned with the completion of at least one full agricultural cycle, which typically spans approximately 7 years.
The journey towards becoming an experienced commercial farmer is therefore not linear but continuous, requiring adaptability, innovation and ongoing learning. Entrepreneurship in this context is characterised by the ability to identify and exploit opportunities, develop innovative and sustainable solutions and manage farming operations for long-term economic profitability. Expert informants emphasised the importance of opportunity recognition, solution-oriented thinking, innovation and sustainable enterprise development for entrepreneurial success in agriculture.
The following research questions from the study are presented as supplementary insights to support this research article’s findings on identifying entrepreneurial skills. Specifically, the discussion addresses the question:
Regarding the timeline to transform, the expert informants (A = Academics; CF = Commercial Farmers and UCF = Upcoming Commercial Farmers) said:
‘You should be established as an entrepreneur after five years according to theory, yet my experience shows that entrepreneurs could stay in an emerging phase/start-up phase for many years as a result of the lack of resources, training, their inability to penetrate the market and the lack of the environment created by the government for these entrepreneurs to prosper.’ (A2, departmental manager; academic and entrepreneurship adviser; 29 years in academia)
‘Between 2 and 3 years.’ (A3, professor; entrepreneurship lecturer and small-business consultant; 16 years in academia)
‘8–10 years, although it is a process of lifelong learning. Stages are identifying an opportunity, developing the business concept, planning, collecting resources and getting started. These stages may take up to 2 years. These stages in themselves may take up to 2 years. After that, the business must grow towards maturity, which may be a short cycle for some businesses and very long for others.’ (A6, faculty dean; senior manager of an entrepreneurship development unit; 35 years in academia)
‘It’s difficult to determine an exact timeframe because several factors could influence this process. However, I believe it would take at least 5 years, but more likely around 10 years, to gain the knowledge and experience necessary to be recognised as experienced.’ (A7, assistant dean for teaching and learning; women and small-enterprise specialist; 24 years in academia)
‘Ten to 20 years, depending on the individual and previous farming experience, e.g., growing up on a farm.’ (A8, Emeritus professor; 30 years teaching entrepreneurship; 40 years in academia)
‘Depending on the individual and previous experience of farming.’ (A9, doctorate-level academic, problem-solving and entrepreneurship lecturer; 10 years’ experience)
‘There is no definite time to successfully move from emerging to a fully-fledged commercial farmer. This largely depends on the support and resources one has access to. Those with the necessary support and resources would most likely transition much quicker than those who may not have.’ (A10, lecturer; mentor; 10 years in academia)
‘The time required for a business owner to evolve from an emerging entrepreneur to a seasoned business operator, in my opinion, is four years because the first two years are a trial-and-error period and building the business foundation and the pilot stage. Then the following year, it’s redefining stage and improving on the product or service the entrepreneur offers.’ (A11, lecturer; social and student entrepreneurship specialist; more than 10 years’ entrepreneurship experience)
‘Every industry has a specific cycle. For a successful transition, an individual must complete at least one industry cycle. Agriculture runs in a seven-year cycle.’ (CF2, farm owner, commercial farmer, and innovator; 30 years’ farming experience)
‘Upcoming commercial farmers are farmers who start as smallholder farmers with commercial farming as the target. Upcoming commercial farmers can be smallholder farmers who grow their businesses or new farmers who grow gradually. Therefore, the timeframe for individual farmers to become upcoming commercial farmers depends on factors that might influence the transition. Factors such as geographic spread, stigma, financing and technical knowledge.’ (CF4, farm owner; farmer-entrepreneur; 10 years’ farming experience)
‘When you have completed one agriculture business cycle with an academic foundation, you can move to be seen as an experienced commercial farmer.’ (CF5, part-time farm owner; entrepreneurship and management lecturer; 8 years’ farming experience)
‘8 years.’ (CF6, farm owner; established commercial farmer; 43 years’ farming experience)
‘Without sponsorship, it would take about ten years. Steps would include: 1. Acquire a 3-year academic background, 2. Then, get at least two years of practical experience. After that, use the guidance of agricultural experts and get support from a full-time agricultural mentor.’ (CF7, farm owner; mentor of upcoming farmers; 40 years’ farming experience)
‘Ten years. Everything will be new, so remember that other, more experienced neighbours will not mind giving advice. Do not pretend to know everything; talk to other farmers, find a mentor(s), ask questions (Why & what, and understand how EVERYTHING works, from different soils and their characteristics and how they impact different crops to finances and how you can improve profitability), join farmer associations, etc.’ (CF8, farm co-owner and chief executive officer; MBA-qualified farmer; Delphi Round 1 [years not recorded])
‘5 years -skills- financial management has to be developed over time and different risks are involved.’ (CF9, farm owner; established commercial farmer; 44 years’ experience)
‘It takes a few years to go through all the cycles because history repeats itself.’ (UCF2, farm co-owner; upcoming commercial farmer; 5 years’ experience)
‘8 years.’ (UCF5, farm co-owner; upcoming commercial farmer; 4 years’ experience)
‘I think it will take 10 years. The first 3 years are spent understanding the commodity you are working with. How it thrives, and what is detrimental to it. The next 3 years will be spent understanding your market and defining your target market. The final 4 years will be about penetrating that market efficiently and effectively to make a meaningful impact.’ (UCF6, piggery manager; upcoming commercial farmer; 3 years’ experience)
The literature emphasises that transitioning from an emerging to an established commercial farmer is lengthy, especially in sustainable agriculture. The transition requires significant time as a result of factors such as capital intensity, market dynamics and the adoption of sustainable practices.
The literature generally supports a timeline of 5–10 years or more, particularly when completing an entire industry cycle, such as the 7-year agricultural cycle mentioned (Pereira et al.
This contrasts with the broader literature, which generally does not account for such accelerated timelines except under exceptional circumstances. The research adds detail by identifying specific conditions under which the transition might occur more quickly, such as prior experience or significant external support, addressing a gap in the literature that does not fully explore these accelerated pathways.
A small proportion of respondents believe the transition could happen within 2–3 years, but this is uncommon.
The primary emphasis here is on those with prior experience or specific support systems. The most common timeline identified is 5–10 years. This range aligns with completing one agricultural cycle (typically 7 years), gaining the necessary experience, resources and support and progressing through the stages of business development. Many responses suggest it may take more than 10 years, mainly as a result of ongoing learning, economic challenges and the complexities of the farming business. This theme underscores that the journey towards becoming an established farmer is continuous, with learning and adaptation ongoing processes, regardless of how long it takes to transition.
Furthermore, the journey reflects a lifelong learning process, in which farmers continually adapt and innovate to remain competitive and sustainable in the evolving agricultural landscape. Thus, the transformation from an upcoming to an established commercial farmer is not merely a fixed timeframe but a progressive and iterative journey shaped by diverse internal and external factors. The progressive and iterative transition from an upcoming to an established commercial farmer is illustrated in
Timeline: Transition from upcoming to established commercial farmer.
The frame for an individual to transition from an upcoming commercial farmer to a sustainable experience farmer.
| Transition timeframe or influencing factor | Frequency | Percentage ( |
|---|---|---|
| Less than 5 years | 2 | 7 |
| 5–10 years | 13 | 43 |
| Complete an industry cycle (7 years for agriculture) | 3 | 10 |
| More than 10 years | 1 | 3 |
| Process of life-long learning | 1 | 3 |
| Depends on different factors | 9 | 30 |
| Training and experience | 6 | 20 |
| Resource availability | 4 | 13 |
| Guidance and support | 2 | 7 |
| Market access | 2 | 7 |
The following
Identification of entrepreneurial skills (Question 2.8).
| Themes | Frequency | Percentage ( |
|---|---|---|
| Critical thinking (problem-solving and strategic planning) | 8 | 27 |
| Positive outlook and proactive behaviour | 7 | 23 |
| Innovative | 7 | 23 |
| Budgeting | 5 | 17 |
| Willingness to seek advice and assistance | 4 | 13 |
| Resource mobilisation (understanding resources) | 4 | 13 |
| Self-discipline and motivation | 4 | 13 |
| Solution-driven | 3 | 10 |
| Time management and planning | 3 | 10 |
| Resilience | 3 | 10 |
| Building networks and connections | 3 | 10 |
| Leadership | 2 | 7 |
| Calculated risk-taking | 2 | 7 |
| Market research | 2 | 7 |
| Work under pressure | 1 | 3 |
Critical entrepreneurial skills necessary for economic sustainability (Question 2.23).
| Themes | Frequency | Percentage ( |
|---|---|---|
| 20 | 67 | |
| Innovative | 7 | 23 |
| Problem-solvers | 6 | 20 |
| Opportunity seekers | 5 | 17 |
| 16 | 53 | |
| Leadership and people skills | 11 | 37 |
| Hardworking and determined | 8 | 27 |
| Adaptability | 4 | 13 |
| Self-management | 2 | 7 |
| Resilience | 2 | 7 |
| Communication skills | 1 | 3 |
| Willingness to learn | 1 | 3 |
| Positive | 1 | 3 |
| 16 | 53 | |
| Budgeting | 7 | 23 |
| Risk management | 11 | 37 |
| Knowledge and experience | 11 | 37 |
| 10 | 33 | |
| Time management | 3 | 10 |
| Detail orientated | 2 | 7 |
| Record keeping | 1 | 3 |
| Marketing skills | 10 | 33 |
| Collaboration and building networks | 7 | 23 |
| Resource management | 3 | 10 |
Critical entrepreneurial skills required for economic sustainability in Free State agriculture (Question 2.28).
| Themes | Frequency | Percentage ( |
|---|---|---|
| 17 | 57 | |
| Budgeting | 5 | 17 |
| 17 | 57 | |
| Innovative | 12 | 40 |
| Problem-solvers | 5 | 17 |
| Opportunity seekers | 3 | 10 |
| 16 | 53 | |
| Leadership and people skills | 7 | 23 |
| Hardworking and determined | 5 | 17 |
| Resilience | 2 | 7 |
| Adaptability | 3 | 10 |
| Willingness to learn | 3 | 10 |
| Communication skills | 3 | 10 |
| Positive | 2 | 7 |
| Humble | 1 | 3 |
| Self-management | 1 | 3 |
| Marketing skills | 12 | 40 |
| 12 | 40 | |
| Administrative skills | 2 | 7 |
| Time management | 1 | 3 |
| Knowledge and experience | 9 | 30 |
| Risk management | 8 | 27 |
| Collaboration and building networks | 8 | 27 |
| Resource management | 4 | 13 |
| Negotiation skills | 2 | 7 |
| Digital literacy | 2 | 7 |
Entrepreneurial skills prioritised to address the challenges and opportunities of upcoming commercial farmers (Question 2.30).
| Themes | Frequency | Percentage ( |
|---|---|---|
| 15 | 50 | |
| Budgeting | 1 | 3 |
| 11 | 37 | |
| Leadership and people skills | 5 | 17 |
| Resilience | 4 | 13 |
| Self-management | 2 | 7 |
| Hardworking and determined | 1 | 3 |
| Willingness to learn | 1 | 3 |
| Positive | 1 | 3 |
| 10 | 33 | |
| Collaboration and building networks | 9 | 30 |
| 8 | 27 | |
| Problem-solvers | 3 | 10 |
| Opportunity seekers | 2 | 7 |
| Innovative | 2 | 7 |
| 7 | 23 | |
| Time management | 4 | 13 |
| Marketing skills | 6 | 20 |
| Business skills | 5 | 17 |
| Risk management | 3 | 10 |
| Technical skills and digital literacy | 4 | 13 |
| Resource management | 2 | 7 |
| Negotiation skills | 1 | 3 |
Critical thinking emerged as essential, encompassing innovation, problem-solving and opportunity-seeking. Academic 4 stated, ‘Critical thinking is needed when considering the different choices available during resource or opportunity exploitation. Opportunity exploitation allows one to draw on resources and find mechanisms to maximise economic returns’. (A4, professor; entrepreneurship teacher, researcher and postgraduate supervisor; experience since 2014). Similarly, CF8 remarked:
‘Critical entrepreneurial skills are the following: Leadership, problem-solving, time management, and communication. All of these can be taught … recognising that your ideas’ ultimate success or failure depends on you.’ (CF8, farm co-owner and chief executive officer; MBA-qualified farmer; Delphi Round 1 (years not recorded])
The final entrepreneurial skills framework and the ranking of the skills from most to least important are presented in
Entrepreneurial skills.
| No. | Skills | Skills listed from most important to least important |
|---|---|---|
| 1 | Critical thinking skills | Financial management skills |
| 2 | Personal skills | Critical thinking skills |
| 3 | Financial management skills | Personal skills |
| 4 | Risk management skills | Risk management skills |
| 5 | Knowledge and experience | Management skills |
| 6 | Management skills | Knowledge/experience |
| 7 | Marketing skills | Resource management |
| 8 | Collaboration and building networks | Collaboration and building networks |
| 9 | Resource management | Negotiation skills |
| 10 | Negotiation skills | Marketing skills |
| 11 | Technological skills and digital literacy | Technological skills/digital literacy |
Personal skills such as self-management, resilience and creative problem-solving were highly valued. Academic 8 stated, ‘Self-management – understanding your strengths and growth areas. Self-motivation (taking initiative and persistence), self-control, planning, goal setting (specific, measurable, achievable, relevant and time-bound [SMART] objectives), organising, decision-making, self-awareness, perception, handling stress, right beliefs in life’ (A8, Emeritus professor; 30 years teaching entrepreneurship; 40 years in academia). Upcoming Commercial Farmer 3 added, ‘Optimistic thinking, creative thinking. Initiative. Persistence. Communication. Negotiation. Ethics. Planning and Project management. Budgeting’ (UCF3, farm owner; cattle, sheep and poultry farmer; 4 years’ experience).
These insights align with Whetton and Cameron’s management skills model and Schultz’s Human Capital Theory, emphasising personal development as critical for entrepreneurial success.
Financial management skills were deemed crucial, including budgeting, forecasting and strategic planning. Academic 8 highlighted, ‘Finances – personal and farm budgeting essential. Save and spend wisely. Accounting of farm activities – a farm needs money for various contingencies’ (A8, Emeritus professor; 30 years teaching entrepreneurship; 40 years in academia). Commercial Farmer 4 emphasised, ‘Understanding budgeting, cash flow management and financial planning is crucial. Farmers need to manage their finances effectively to ensure sustainability and profitability’ (CF4, farm owner; farmer-entrepreneur; 10 years’ farming experience).
The Six Capitals Model and Schultz’s Human Capital Theory strongly support these findings, underscoring financial literacy’s role in sustaining business operations amid market volatility and economic challenges.
Risk management was identified as key for navigating uncertainties such as weather changes, market fluctuations and pest outbreaks. Commercial Farmer 4 noted, ‘Risk Management: Identifying potential risks and developing strategies to mitigate them can help farmers navigate uncertainties’ (CF4, farm owner; farmer-entrepreneur; 10 years’ farming experience). Commercial Farmer 9 added, ‘Management skills. The entrepreneurs and managers are not necessarily the same person. Being innovative doesn’t make you a manager. The manager has to assess and manage controllable risks’ (CF9, farm owner; established commercial farmer; 44 years’ experience).
Knight’s Uncertainty-Bearing Theory aligns with these findings, emphasising risk mitigation as critical for entrepreneurial success, especially in volatile environments like agriculture.
Understanding market dynamics, sustainability and technical practices was emphasised. Academic 1 stated:
‘Understand markets and market needs. Understand the concept of profitability and risks. Understand that the use of external funding is only limited and available … Listen and apply expert advice on the farm’s external funding to be used to finance growth.’ (A1, agricultural economic consultant; academic; Delphi Round 1; 40 years’ experience)
Commercial Farmer 4 added:
‘Technical Knowledge: Understanding modern agricultural practices, including technology and sustainable farming methods, is essential for improving efficiency and reducing environmental impact’. (CF4, farm owner; farmer-entrepreneur; 10 years’ farming experience)
Schultz’s Human Capital Theory reinforces these insights, highlighting how accumulated knowledge and experience enhance decision-making and adaptability in complex markets.
Strong leadership, strategic decision-making and operational management were highlighted as critical. Commercial Farmer 4 stated, ‘Leadership and Management: Strong leadership and management skills are necessary to lead teams, make strategic decisions and drive the business towards its goals’ (CF4, farm owner; farmer-entrepreneur; 10 years’ farming experience). Upcoming Commercial Farmer 9 further emphasised, ‘Strong leadership is needed to manage farm labour, including the hiring, training and retaining skilled workers’ (UCF9, family-farm participant; upcoming commercial farmer; 1 year’s experience).
Whetton and Cameron’s management skills model and Nieman and Nieuwenhuizen’s work support these findings, underscoring the dual necessity of visionary and managerial skills.
Marketing skills were emphasised to understand market demands and promote products effectively. Commercial Farmer 4 remarked, ‘Marketing and Sales: Skills in marketing their products, understanding market demands and effectively selling their produce are essential’ (CF4, farm owner; farmer-entrepreneur; 10 years’ farming experience). Upcoming Commercial Farmer 4 added, ‘Market Research and Marketing Case Studies: Analyse other farmers’ or agricultural businesses’ successful marketing strategies’ (UCF4, farm owner and director; vegetable and livestock farmer; 7 years’ experience).
These insights align with Rudmann’s assertion that modern farmers must possess entrepreneurial skills, particularly in adapting to market-driven environments.
Building networks and fostering collaboration were identified as vital. Commercial Farmer 4 stated, ‘Networking and Collaboration: Building strong networks with other farmers, suppliers and buyers can provide valuable support and opportunities’ (CF4, farm owner; farmer-entrepreneur; 10 years’ farming experience). Upcoming Commercial Farmer 6 emphasised, ‘Established farmers must form part of the training programmes. Each commercial farmer must mentor a certain number of farmers going forward’ (UCF6, piggery manager; upcoming commercial farmer; 3 years’ experience).
These findings align with Latruffe et al.’s (
Efficient management of natural and physical resources was highlighted. Commercial Farmer 4 noted, ‘Resource Management: Efficient management of natural resources (water, soil, biodiversity) to ensure long-term sustainability’ (CF4, farm owner; farmer-entrepreneur; 10 years’ farming experience). Upcoming Commercial Farmer 1 added, ‘Adopting technologies for resource optimisation. Monitoring resource use to minimise waste’ (UCF2, farm co-owner; upcoming commercial farmer; 5 years’ experience).
Mmako et al.’s (
Negotiation skills were identified as crucial for maintaining strong business relationships. Upcoming Commercial Farmer 3 remarked, ‘Optimistic thinking, creative thinking. Initiative. Persistence. Communication. Negotiation. Ethics. Planning and Project Management. Budgeting’ (UCF3, farm owner; cattle, sheep and poultry farmer; 4 years’ experience). Academic 3 further highlighted, ‘Marketing skills. Negotiation skills. Basic skills in the agricultural industry’ (A3, professor; entrepreneurship lecturer and small-business consultant; 16 years in academia).
Emphasising fairness and assertiveness aligns with collaborative negotiation theories that prioritise mutual benefit over competitive tactics.
Technical proficiency and digital literacy were underscored as essential. Commercial Farmer 4 stated, ‘Technical Knowledge: Understanding modern agricultural practices, including technology and sustainable farming methods, is essential for improving efficiency and reducing environmental impact’ (CF4, farm owner; farmer-entrepreneur; 10 years’ farming experience). Academic 10 added, ‘Farmers must experience these concepts and not just hear about them’ (A10, lecturer; mentor; 10 years in academia).
Casson’s (